Health, safety and environmental issues relating to cadmium usage in photovoltaic energy systems Page: 4 of 35
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. I
2. CELL FABRICATION.......................................................................................... I
2.1 Cell Characteristics................................................................................... 2
2.2 Fabrication................................................................................................ 4
2.3 Perspective on Cadmium Usage ............................................................... 6
3. HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES...................................................................... 7
3.1 Cadmium Toxicology ................................................................................. 8
3.2 Occupational Health ................................................................................. 11
3.3 Public Health ...............................................................................................1 2
4. FEDERAL STATUTES AND REGULATIONS............................................ 17
4.1 Clean Air Act .......................................................................................... 17
4.2 Clean Water Act ..........................................................................................17
4.3 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ............................................ 18
4.4 Toxic Substances Control Act.....................................................................19
4.5 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act .........................................................................................19
4.6 Occupational Safety and Health Administration Act................................20
5. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS ............................................................................ 21
5.1 Administrative ......................................................................................... 21
5.2 E n gineering ..................................................................................................23
5.3 P ersonal........................................................................................................24
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................. 25
7. REFERENCES.......................................................................................................27
TABLES
1. Densities of photovoltaic materials used in CdS and CdTe
solar cells................................................................................................................ 2
2. Selected methods for fabricating CdS and CdTe solar cells............................. 5
FIGURES
1. Quantity of cadmium feedstock material needed to make CdTe layers
of differing thickness......................................................................................... 3
2. Quantity of cadmium feedstock material needed to make CdS layers
of differing thickness......................................................................................... 4
3. U.S. consumption of cadmium by product type in 1986.................................. 7
4. Estimated ground-level concentrations of cadmium from a fire
consuming CdTe modules of different sizes - 10% release............................. 16ii
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Moskowitz, P.D.; Fthenakis, V.M. (Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, NY (USA)) & Zweibel, K. (Solar Energy Research Inst., Golden, CO (USA)). Health, safety and environmental issues relating to cadmium usage in photovoltaic energy systems, report, January 1, 1990; Golden, Colorado. (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1194138/m1/4/: accessed July 16, 2024), University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu; crediting UNT Libraries Government Documents Department.