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The Fractal Stochastic Point Process Model of Molecular Evolution and the Multiplicative Evolution Statistical Hypothesis
A fractal stochastic point process (FSPP) is used to model molecular evolution in agreement with the relationship between the variance and mean numbers of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions in mammals. Like other episodic models such as the doubly stochastic Poisson process, this model accounts for the large variances observed in amino acid substitution rates, but unlike other models, it also accounts for the results of Ohta's (1995) analysis of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions in mammalian genes. That analysis yields a power-law increase in the index of dispersion and an inverse power-law decrease in the coefficient of variation with the mean number of substitutions, as predicted by the FSPP model but not by the doubly stochastic Poisson model. This result is compatible with the selection theory of evolution and the nearly-neutral theory of evolution.
Microstructural Studies of Dental Amalgams Using Analytical Transmission Electron Microscopy
Dental amalgams have been used for centuries as major restorative materials for decaying teeth. Amalgams are prepared by mixing alloy particles which contain Ag, Sn, and Cu as the major constituent elements with liquid Hg. The study of microstructure is essential in understanding the setting reactions and improving the properties of amalgams. Until the work reported in this dissertation, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and x-ray diffractometry (XRD) were used commonly to analyze amalgam microstructures. No previous systematic transmission electron microscopy (TEM) study has been performed due to sample preparation difficulties and composite structure of dental amalgams. The goal of this research was to carry out detailed microstructural and compositional studies of dental amalgams. This was accomplished using the enhanced spatial resolution of the TEM and its associated microanalytical techniques, namely, scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (XEDS) and micro-microdiffraction (μμD). A new method was developed for thinning amalgam samples to electron transparency using the "wedge technique." Velvalloy, a low-Cu amalgam, and Tytin, a high-Cu amalgam, were the two amalgams characterized. Velvalloy is composed of a Ag₂Hg₃ (γ₁)/HgSn₇₋₉ (γ₂) matrix surrounding unreacted Ag₃Sn (γ) particles. In addition, hitherto uncharacterized reaction layers between Ag₃Sn(γ)/Ag₂Hg₃ (γ₂) and Ag₂Hg₃ (γ₁)/HgSn₇₋₉ (γ₂) were observed and analyzed. An Ag-Hg-Sn (β₁) phase was clearly identified for the first time. In Tytin, the matrix consists of Ag₂Hg₃ (γ₁) grains. Fine precipitates of Cu₆Sn₅ (η') are embedded inside the γ₁ and at the grain boundaries. These precipitates are responsible for the improved creep resistance of Tytin compared to Velvalloy. The additional Cu has completely eliminated the γ₂ phase which is the weakest component of amalgams. Ag-Hg-Sn (β₁) and large grains of Cu₆Sn₅ (η') are found adjacent to the unreacted alloy particles. Tytin alloy particles contain Cu₃Sn (ε) precipitates in a matrix of Ag₃Sn …
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