An Examination of the Similarities and Differences Between Transformational and Authentic Leadership and Their Relationship to Followers' Outcomes Page: 30
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organizational, and societal pressures, and it results in expressed decision making and behavior
that is consistent with these internalized values (Walumbwa et al., 2008). Each of these
definitions came about through the utilization of research in positive psychology, social
psychology, moral and ethical philosophy, and related fields. Using a multi-sample strategy
involving U.S. and non-U.S. participants, Walumbwa et al. (2008) provided initial evidence that
a measure of authentic leadership that assessed these four components was reliable. These four
scales loaded on a higher-order factor labeled authentic leadership that has discriminate validity
from measures of transformational leadership (e.g. Avolio, 1999) and ethical leadership (e.g.
Brown, Trevino, & Harrison, 2005), and that was a significant and positive predictor of
organizational citizenship behavior, organizational commitment, and satisfaction with supervisor
and performance.
Authentic Leadership and Outcomes
Due to the emerging nature of authentic leadership research, only 25 empirical articles
have been published. Gardner, Cogliser, Davis and Dickens (2011) distinguished between
qualitative and quantitative studies to identify the research strategies employed across time
periods, finding that nine studies used qualitative methods, while sixteen studies used
quantitative methods. For the qualitative studies, the authors found that there was no particular
form of data collection favored as focus groups, case studies, interviews, narrative analysis, and
participant observation were all employed. In addition, the research was conducted in a wide
range of settings. Although qualitative methodology is important, the authors encourage
researchers to devote greater attention to assessing the credibility, transferability, and
dependability of their findings. When examining quantitative research, most of the studies (13)
were conducted at the individual level of analysis with only four focused at the organizational30
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McKee, Victoria. An Examination of the Similarities and Differences Between Transformational and Authentic Leadership and Their Relationship to Followers' Outcomes, dissertation, August 2013; Denton, Texas. (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc283823/m1/39/: accessed April 18, 2024), University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu; .