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The History of the Atomic Bomb
A brief history of the development of the atomic bomb in the United States and Germany during World War II.
Metallurgical Laboratory, Physics and Metallurgy Division, Report for the Month of February 1946
Technical report with short reports from the (A) Crystal Structure Section ; (B) Mass Spectroscopy Section ; and (C) Metallurgy Section.
Effect of Routing Upon Temperature of Cooling Stream
With discussion under way concerning power production by chain reacting piles, it becomes pertinent to consider the ration of the temperature of the hottest spot in the pile to the average exit temperature of the cooling stream. This is important because the temperature of the hottest spot in the pile is one of the limiting factors in determining the maximum power at which a pile can be operated. However, the higher the temperature of the emerging cooling stream, the more efficient can be the thermal engine operated by it. Thus the ideal situation is to have the average exit temperature of the cooling stream as near as possible to the hottest temperature of the hottest spot in the pile.
The Laplacian for a Beryllium Metal Lattice of Volume Ratio 17.2
Abstract. the Laplacian of a beryllium metal lattice with 3.3 kg of uranium metal per cell and a volume ratio of 17.2 was measured in the removable region of the CP-2 machine. the sandwich effect with different moderators made interpretation of the observations very uncertain. The best result found was Be = 407 x 10(-6) cm(-2).
Fractionation of Fission Products and Heavy Elements by Volatilization Methods
Technical report describing the attempt to separate the long lived fission product oxides by volatilization methods. A fractionization crucible was used. The fractionations give a fair idea of the relative volatilities of the longer lived fission products and also of the degrees of separation of the plutonium oxide or oxides from the fission products.
Radiocarbon from Pile Graphite; Chemical Methods for its Concentration
Abstract. Samples of pile graphite, irradiated in a test-hole at Hanford for 15 months, have been assayed for radioactive C14, yielding 0.38 ± 0.04 microcuries per gram. At this level of activity, the pile graphite contains very valuable amounts of C14. The relation between the above assay and the probable average assay of pile graphite is discussed, and it is concluded that the latter is almost certainly above 0.3 uc/ gram. Controlled oxidation of this graphite, either with oxygen at ~ 750°C, or with chromic acid "cleaning solution" at room temperature, yields early fractions which are highly enriched in C14. Concentrations of 5-fold with oxygen, and 50-fold with CRO{sub3}, have been observed. The relation between the observed enrichment and the Wigner effect is discussed, and a mechanism accounting for the observations put forward. According to this, about 25% of the stable carbon atoms in the lattice have been displaced by Wigner effect, a large fraction of which have healed the migrating to crystal edges. All the C14 atoms have been displaced, and the same fraction of these migrate to the edges. The enrichment then results from surface oxidation, in the oxygen case. Predictions are made on the basis of this hypothesis. A technique of counting radioactive CO2 in the gas phase is described
Procedures for the Separation of Products Resulting From Bombardment of Heavy Elements
Technical report that attempts to bring together the various chemical procedures which proved most useful in studying the results of cyclotron bombardment or small scale neutron bombardments of heavy element targets. The report is limited to the elements of the "actinide", or second rare earth series, starting with thorium and including the newly discovered elements of atomic number 95 and 96. Every attempt is made to include all details necessary so this report can serve as a practical laboratory guide. The report covers separation problems, time factors, and dealing with dangerously radioactive targets.
The Charge on Uranium(VI) in Acid Solution
Abstract. The distribution coefficient of U(VI) between perchloric acid solutions and benzene solutions of TTA has been measured as a function of the acidity. It was possible to interpret the data in terms of the charge on the U(VI) species present in the aqueous phase. The experiments indicate that U(VI) exists as an ion charge +2 at acidities from 0.1M to 2.5M. In the interpretations of the distribution data, it was necessary to know the acidity coefficient of the uranyl chelate in the benzene solution. This was determined by measurement of the solubility of the compound UO2K2 - xH2). The activity coefficient of UO2K2 was found to decrease rapidly as the concentration of TTA in the benzene phase increased above 0.1M. This is probably due to the formation of a species involving more than two TTA molecules per U(VI)
The Dissolution of Thorium Metal and Thorium Dioxide in HNO3 - HF and HNO3- ( NH4 ) 2 SiF6 Mixtures
Abstract. A satisfactory method has been found for dissolving thorium metal and thorium oxide in heat-treated 25-12 stainless steel vessels without excessive corrosion of the vessels. The dissolution medium consists of strong HNO3 containing a small amount of fluoride or fluo-silicate. the fluoride required has no harmful effects on a subsequent solvent-extraction step for a separation of uranium isotopes from the dissolved thorium.
The U + 4 - U02 ++ Couple in H2SO , and the U + S - u + 4 Couple in HCl
Technical report: Measurements have been made on the equilibrium between Cu, Cu2+, U4+, and UO22+ in H2SO4 in an attempt to establish the value of the U4+ - UO22+ couple potential. The value of the formal potential for the U3+ - U4+ couple in 1N HCl at 0 degrees C was determined to be + 0.65 v.
The Preparation of High-Purity Beryllium Oxide
Abstract. A method for the preparation of beryllium oxide of high purity is presented. Beryllium basic acetate (BeO-3Be(C2H3O2)2) is prepared from the metal or a convenient salt, a chloroform solution of this material extracted with redistilled water, the dried basic acetate distilled in a quartz apparatus, and this purified material converted to the oxide by fuming down with sulfuric acid and igniting at 1000 degrees C. Impurities detectable spectrographically were reduced to a very low level.
Column Adsorption Methods in Analytical Chemistry
Technical report. Numerous application of various column adsorption techniques to inorganic analytical chemistry have appear in the literature. The comparatively recent introduction of ion exchange resins has resulted in the development of efficient, simple, and rapid column adsorption methods. the principal service of column adsorption methods to analytical chemistry is that of providing a relatively simple means of separating an element in a sufficiently pure state so that a direct precipitation, ignition, and weighting, for example, will suffice to complete the quantitative analysis. Systems involving uranyl nitrate will naturally be emphasized in this report but information will be included concerning the separation of the individual members of a series from one another, such as in the alkaline earths and the rare earths.
Report on the Carpenter Ridge District, Dolores Plateau Area, Colorado
A report on the survey of ore deposits in the Carpenter Ridge District, Dolores Plateau Area, Colorado.
Report on Beaver Creek Mesa district, Green River desert area, Colorado-Utah
A report with corollary maps on the Beaver Creek Mesa District.
Report on the Blanding District San Juan Basin Area, Utah
A report with corollary maps and calculation tables on the Blanding District.
Report on the Abajo Mountains district, Green River Desert area, Utah
Report with Supporting maps and calculation tables on the Abajo Mountains District, Geen River Desert Area, Utah.
The Effect of Age on the Radiosensitivity of Mice
Abstract: Mice of different ages ranging from 1.5 to 12 months have been exposed to gamma rays in an effort to determine the change in radiosensitivity with age. The dose necessary to cause 50% killing was determined for each age group and sex. No change in sensitivity with age was observed with either sex, although the experimental error in the case of the males was quite large. The females were found to be more resistant than the males.
Some Studies of the Reactions of Uranium Oxides with Hydrogen, Oxygen and Water
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to obtain data that would be useful in predicting changes that might be expected to occur in the oxidation state and degree of hydration of powdered uranium oxides maintained for long periods of time at temperatures between 30 and 300 degrees C. in the presence of excess water, hydrogen, oxygen and possibly hydrogen peroxide. The reaction of hydrogen and oxygen with water slurries of U3O8 were studied at 100-300 degree C.
The X-Ray Spectra of the Last-Row Elements
Abstract: X-ray energy level diagrams as given in the literature are tabulated for radium, thorium and uranium. A level scheme for protoactinium is derived from the published data. After a brief review of the use of X-ray data in studying outer electronic structure, it is pointed out that differences in the X-ray spectra should exist depending on whether the outer electrons are in f or d orbitals. The observed separation of the OI and OII levels in thorium and uranium indicated that the f levels lie lower than the d. This hypothesis also provides a reasonable explanation for the observed differences between the MIV and MV absorption edges and MIV and MV levels calculated from the emission spectra and the LIII edge.
The Geochemistry of Indium
Abstract" This is a review, with annotated bibliography, of the mode of occurrence of the element indium. It is not a list of specific ore deposits, but a summary of the types of minerals and rocks in which indium has been reported to occur. In addition, the unpublished spectrographic studies of the Geological Survey on mill and smelter products are summarized, best sources of indium are indicated, and suggestions are made for further investigations. Indium has been found to occur most abundantly in sphalerites. The amount ranges from traces to maximum of 1.0 percent. Dark sphalerites are reported richer in indium than light-colored sphalerites. Up to 0.1 percent indium has been reported in chalcopyrite and bornite, but these minerals generally contain very little indium. There is an unverified report of a pegmatite in Utah containing 1.0 to 2.8 percent indium. Some residues in zinc smelting contain more than 1.0 percent indium and are the present source on indium. No better source can be suggested but steps should be taken to ascertain that this source is being fully exploited. Tin sulfide smelter products should be checked. An effort should be made to check the Utah pegmatite occurrence.
Note on the Determination of Lead in Pitchblende
Technical report describing a procedure for the determination of lead in pitchblende. The procedure was determined as needed in the course of an investigation of the processing of pitchblende for the production of uranium. Summary: The volumetric dichromate method for the determination of lead was selected from among several methods investigated as being best suited for a rapid determination of lead in pitchblende. The method as described is accurate to within 1% and it does not require the application of an empirical factor as suggested by Willard and Diehl for this determination.
Crystal Structure Studies of the System NaF-UF4, NaF-ThF4 and NaF-LaF3
Abstract: In the NaF-UF4 system the following intermediate phases have been found: NaUF5, -Na2UF6, -Na2UF6 and NacUF7. NaLaF4 is the only intermediate phase observed in the system NaF-LaF3. In the course of an incomplete study of the system NaF-ThF4 the phases NaTh2F9, -Na2ThF6, -Na2ThF6 and Na4ThF8 have been observed. Crystal structure data are given for all the phases.
Mass Spectrometric Observation of C14
This report describes observations of a sample of Carbon-14, or radiocarbon, made using the method of mass spectrometry.
Minimum Hydrogen Peroxide Concentration Required for Precipitate Formation From 50 Per Cent Uranyl Salt Solutions
This two page report discusses the processes followed and findings of an effort to estimate the minimum amount of hydrogen peroxide concentrations required for the formation of a precipitate in 50 percent solutions of uranyl nitrate and uranyl sulfate containing various concentrations of excess anion as acid. The report contains a table detailing the results.
Hydrodynamic Theory of the Reaction Zone in High Explosives
From introduction: "The first part deals with stationary detonation waves...the second part is concerned with the structure of detonation waves of finite age...the third part deals with the steady state motion attained by a detonation wave in certain cases of two-dimensional flow."
Comparative Effectiveness and Additivity of Fission Neutrons Gamma Rays and Beta Rays of Drosphila Eggs
From abstract: "Some investigations have been made to ascertain the similarity of the mechanism of action of radiation which are different in their specific ionization. A suggested approach was to determine if the energies absorbed from the different types of radiation are additive in their lethal effects on biological objects. In an attempt to determine the additivity of ionizing radiation various dose combinations of fast neutrons, gamma rays and beta rays were administered to Drosophila eggs. These test objects were chosen because their dimensions are such that they tend to absorb these three radiations uniformly throughout their volume. Although the three radiations were found to vary in their biological effectiveness, per unit energy absorbed, all three were shown to be completely additive in their lethal effect on these organisms."
The Quantitative Estimation of the Activity of Beta Particle Emitters
From abstract: "In estimating the activities of β-emitting materials used in the Biology Section, most measurements were made with Geiger-Mueller counters, although Lauritsen electroscopes were used in early work. All samples were mounted on flat porcelain capsules."
Methods of Analysis of Fission Products in the Experimental Biology Section
From abstract: "This report describes methods used for radiochemical analysis of fission products most used in the Experimental Biology Section. The report includes methods of analysis of Sr89, Ba140-La140, Zr95-Cb95, Ce144-Pr144, and Y91 by standard chemical procedures. In addition, a method of analysis by use of an absorption curve is described in some detail for Zr95-Cb95 mixtures. The absorption curve method makes possible rapid determination of percentage composition of a mixture of isotopes with a minimum of chemical manipulation by utilizing the differences in absorption characteristics of the emitted rays."
Sid Magnet Model Test Results
From introduction: "These data were taken on a 1/16th scale model of the magnet shown on sketch no. FS-2. The object of these measurements was to get information that would determine the final design of the full scale magnet. The one main point to be settled was whether a tapered or a cylindrical pole piece would give the largest value of Hρ for a given power input into the magnet (the cylindrical pole piece is shown in dotted lines in sketch FS-2)."
The Geochemistry of Columbium and Tantalum
From abstract: "This is a review, with annotated bibliography, of the mode of occurrence of the elements columbium and tantalum. It is not a list of specific ore deposits, but a summary of the types of minerals and rocks in which these elements have been reported to occur. In addition, the unpublished spectrographic studies of the Geological Survey are summarized, best sources for columbium and tantalum are indicated, and suggestions are made for further investigation."
Geochemistry of Germanium
From abstract: "This is a review, with annotated bibliography, of the mode of occurrence of the element germanium. It is not a list of specific ore deposits, but a summary of the types of minerals and rocks in which germanium has been reported to occur. Best sources for germanium are indicated, based on the data in the literature and on the unpublished spectrographic studies of the Geological Survey on mill and smelter products. Suggestions are made for further investigations."
The Metabolism of Thorium, Protoactinium, and Neptunium in the Rat
From abstract: "The distribution of carrier-free thorium, protoactinium and neptunium in the rat following intramuscular and oral administration has been studied. Oral adsorption for all three is negligible. Following parenteral administration, the skeleton is the organ showing the highest degree of prolonged and selective localization."
Electrolytic Reduction of Uranyl Ion
From introduction: "Due to the hydrogen overvoltage at the surface of a mercury cathode, uranium solutions is hydrochloric acid may be reduced not only to the tetravalent state, but until considerable trivalent uranium is formed. Other metallic ions act as oxidation-reduction catalysts as well as being reduced themselves. The following paper is a study of the various reactions taking place in solution and at the surface of the cathode."
Infrared Spectrum of Benzene
From abstract: "Benzene shows weak absorption bands in the 3 aliphatic C-Z region of the spectrum. The peaks of these bands are at 3.439, 3.459, 3.504, and 3.545."
Metabolism and Distribution of Inhaled Plutonium in Rats
From abstract: "Several different techniques were used to introduce tracer quantities of plutonium into the lungs of rats. When aerosols were produced by atomizing aqueous solutions of the nitrates it was found that approximately 20 per cent of the dose was absorbed and deposited in the skelton [sic] with tetra-, hexa-, and trivalent plutonium. Thus with these compounds, the lungs represent a more dangerous portal of entry than either oral (0.05 per cent) or intramuscular (13 per cent) administration. Tetravalent Pu was eliminated most slowly from the lung, the average half-time during the first month being 15 days. But when citrate was added to complex the Pu, over 70 per cent was eliminated within 1 day. This was accompanied by a deposition of over 30 per cent in the skelton [sic] and over 20 per cent in the liver. Presumably citrate breaks up the insoluble colloid in which Pu exists in the lungs. Complexing with cupferron which, unlike citrate, produces a "fat soluble" compound, greatly diminished the extent of absorption from the lungs. Plutonium oxide smokes which were produced at high temperatures were eliminated more slowly from the lungs (average half time of 30 days during the first month) and were deposited in the skeleton to a much lesser extent (6.2 per cent) than was the case with the nitrates."
Argonne National Laboratory Biology Division Quarterly Report: August to October, 1946
From introductory paragraph: "This is the first quarterly report of the Biology Division of the Argonne National Laboratory. During the three-month period covered by this report, a large share of the time of many investigators has been spent in collating work done under the Biology Section of the Metallurgical laboratory for publication in the Plutonium Project Record. The large amount of work done under wartime pressure has made this, as in other divisions and projects, an important part of the transition to the post-war period."
The Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transformations
This technical report is divided into two sections addressing two different chemical effects of nuclear transformations. The first section discusses the beta decay of lanthanum to cerium. The second section discusses the beta decay of selenium to bromine.
The Effects of Fast Neutrons on the Ability of Mice to Take Forced Exercise
From abstract: "In an attempt to gain some insight into the physiological condition of mice surviving massive doses of radiation, a study of their vitality was undertaken. It was assured that the ability of these animals to do forced work would be a measure of their vitality, Stimulating exposed animals to run in exercise wheels to their fullest capacity, has resulted in a demonstration of a striking vitality less during a post-irradiative period, when no other effects are demonstrable by gross examination. Mice subjected to a medium-lethal dose of fast neutrons show a continuous vitality loss over a 300 day period following exposure. Control animals show no appreciable loss of vitality up to about 8 months of age, after which a gradual loss can be noted, probably due to a normal gereologic process."
The Beta-Gamma Hand and Foot Counters
Abstract: This is basically a counting rate meter, with an alarm circuit, operating from four GM tubes as the detecting elements. The Hand Counter comprises four logarithmic counting rate meters working from four GM tubes mounted individually, with associated electronic circuits, in suitable shields with a metal mesh type of window. Both sides of both hands are sampled simultaneously. In the Foot Counter, two GM tubes are separately and mounted in a suitable mesh window shielded with the electronic circuit; the foot counter uses only two counting rate meters, and both feet are sampled simultaneously. Each circuit is built in two parts; two tubes are in the shield and the balance of the circuit is in the electronic unit which is a standard 17" x 13" chassis. Circuit diagrams are included.
The Spatial Distribution of Neutrons Slowed Down by Elastic Collisions
Technical report discussion of the complicated problem of the spatial distribution of slowed down neutrons. The introduction covers the current research on the topic. The following chapters cover the topics: (1) approximate treatment and its limitations, (2) age-velocity distribution, (3) general scheme of treatment based on transport equation, (4) Fermi's one-dimensional model, (5) moments, (6) remarks about the distribution function, and (7) point source.
Nucleonics and the Chemical Engineering Curriculum
This report discusses the field of nucleonics in the wake of the development of the atomic bomb, ruminating on the training and curriculum necessary for the next generation of chemical and nuclear engineers.
Pile Kinetics
From abstract: "A pile will run steadily at an arbitrary level if it is just critical. For a pile not at equilibrium, equations of motion can be set up that contain as variables the pile power, the number of delayed neutron emitters and, in case it is of importance, also the pile temperature. The coefficients will depend on the average lifetime of the neutrons in the pile, the fractions and periods of delayed neutrons, temperature coefficients of resistivity and similar quantities. For a definite 'excess resistivity', which may be positive or negative, the power level will change exponentially with time with periods determined by the so-called 'labour' relation. For control and safety problems the transient behavior of the pile under reactivity changes has to be investigated. A number of limiting cases can be solved explicitly. A general method for the solution of the pile equations is available for small deviations from a steady state. In this case a pile impedance can be defined in close analogy to electric circuit theory."
Theory of Pile Control Rods
From abstract: "A control rod absorbs neutrons and increases the leakage of neutrons from the pile through the depression of the neutron density in its vicinity. To determine the effect of controls on critical conditions for a pile the absorber may be considered, as in the electrical analogue, to produce a singularity in neutron density at its position. The strength of such a singularity is determined by the boundary conditions which must be satisfied at the surface of the black or non-black absorber and the order of the singularity is determined by the geometry of the problem. The general solution of the pile equations can then be expressed by a sum of a regular solution plus the solution containing the proper singularities and this total solution can be adjusted to satisfy the boundary conditions. By this means the effect of control rods of various sizes and positions on pile reactivity and neutron distribution and the effects of mutual control rod shading have been investigated both by a thermal and by a two group theory."
A Mass Spectrograph for the Analysis of Fission Product Mixtures
From introduction: "The analysis of mixtures of fission products with a mass spectrograph offers certain advantages. A chemical separation of the fission products found in the solution at Hanford is not necessary with the mass spectrograph technique. A sample of the mixtures can be placed on the sample holder and then the sample holder is mounted in the mass spectrograph. This reduces the amount of handling of the active solutions to one relatively simple and short operation. The health hazards involved in the analysis can be further reduced by increasing the efficiency of the spectrograph as much as possible, thus making possible an analysis of a sample of lower total activity. The mass spectrograph described here is an attempt to realize the advantages pointed out above. Particular attention has been given to increasing the increasing the efficiency of the instrument."
Process Monitor, Mark 10, Model 20
This report describes a specific apparatus used to monitor the intensity of gamma radiation. The report includes a diagram of the apparatus.
Measurement of Weak Neutron Intensities by Szilard-Chalmers Reaction in Calcium Permanganate Solution
From abstract: "A sensitive method for measuring the intensity of weak neutron sources by measuring induced Mn56 beta activity after concentration by a Szilard-Chalmers process has been developed. The practical detection efficiency for Ra-Be neutron is 7.8%; the procedure is capable of detecting a neutron intensity of about one neutron per second."
Inorganic Separations Using Ion Exchange
From summary: "In previous project work, dilute mixtures of inorganic cations in aqueous solution have been concentrated by adsorption of the cations on a synthetic resin and they have been fractionated by selective desorption of the cations from the resin. In this report..the general procedure used in chemical separation, the equipment used, and the theory of the exchange equilibria and of the reaction rates are presented."
Contributions to the Radiochemistry of 104 day Y88.
From introductory paragraph: "The study of the counting techniques of gamma-emitting radioisotopes is of a great deal of interest to workers in the field of radiochemistry. Of particular interest to the long-lived gamma emitting isotope of yttrium which is commonly prepared by a deuteron bombardment of strontium and is reported to decay by K-capture. This isotope, which is of interest in the fields of biochemistry and metallurgy was tentatively assigned to mass 86. Since a 2.0 hour activity was observed from a neutron irradiation of yttrium, the assignment was considered fixed. Subsequent work indicated a possibility of a long-lived gamma emitting activity arising in the fast neutron irradiation of yttrium. The published data did not agree with theoretical calculations as to the possibility of these two activities being isomers. This work was undertaken to study the characteristics of the radiations from the isotopes; to have data available on the long-lived activity; and, to attempt to fix the mass assignment."
Analysis of X-ray Powder Diffraction Data on Crystalline Uranium Hexafluoride.
From introduction: "The concluding remarks of the report on the electron diffraction study of UF6 suggest two alternate explanations for the apparent discrepancy between the structure proposed for this compound as deduced from X-ray diffraction work on single crystals and from the electron diffraction investigation of the vapor. The second explanation is based on the premise that the difference may be due to essentially unlike methods of treating the diffraction data. In this report we shall analyze X-ray powder photographs following a scheme parallel to that used in the analysis of the electron diffraction data, to check whether this particular explanation is tenable."
Determination of Oxygen in Uranium by Vacuum Fusion
From abstract: "An apparatus for analysis of metal samples for oxygen content is described. Vasuum [sic] fusion in a graphite crucible which is insulated by porous carbon in an all pyrex glass apparatus is used to remove the oxygen as carbon monoxide. Temperatures over 2000°C. are attainable with a 6 K.V.A. Ajax converter for induction heating. Successful operation depended upon a preliminary vacuum heating of the carbon parts at 2100°C. to remove hydrocarbon tars so that cracking of the pyrex glass will not occur due to deposit of tar. An operating temperature of 1750°C. - 1800°C. has been found satisfactory for uranium when using a platinum bath. The platinum bath is the most suitable bath because of its low volatility, its satisfactory carbon solubility, and because of the decrease of 'getting errors' due to volatility of reactive metals. Most metals form stable compounds with platinum and are therefore strongly held by the platinum bath and can not vaporize and thus react with the excaping [sic] CO gas..."
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