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An 8-Matrix Theory of the Vertex p - NN Based on the Strip Approximation
The present study was motivated by an attempt to understand low energy [formula] scattering within the framework of the bootstrap principle and the un-Reggeized version of the strip approximation. This work attempts to generate low energy [formula] scattering in the p(1,1) and p(3,3) states assuming the potential operating in these states is generated by the exchange of low mass meson states in the crossed t-channel and low mass baryon states in the crossed u channel. In particular, the p-meson is kept in channel t; the p mass and the coupling of [formula] and [formula] appear as parameters. The parameters of the nucleon and (3,3) poles are taken as the elements to be determined by self-consistency.
An Adiabatic Motion Of Charged Particles In Electromagnetic Fields
The guiding center motion and the adiabatic invariants of charged particle trajectories in electromagnetic fields are treated in this review. General and specific theories of charged particle motion are also reviewed.
Antiproton-Nucleon Cross Sections From 0.5 To 1.0 Bev
Antiproton-production and nucleon-interaction cross sections were investigated for antiprotons in the energy range 0.5 to 1.0 Bev. The antiprotons were distinguished from other particles produced at the Bevatron by a system of scintillation- and velocity-selecting Cerenkov counters. The excitation function and momentum distribution were recorded for antiproton production in carbon and compared with statistical model expectations.
Automatic Scanning And Measuring Of Bubble Chamber Photographs
The development of high-energy charged particle accelerators such as the Bevatron and of improved nuclear-event detection devices such as the Berkeley 72-in. hydrogen bubble chamber has greatly increased the need for high-speed data reduction of nuclear events. Full exploitation of the potential of the 72-in. bubble chamber demands a very high-speed analysis system. This paper describes an approach to such a system.
BEFCYF And DBDT: IBM 704 Codes For Preparing Input For Bevatron Orbit Code (BOC)
Two IBM-704 codes have been written which are auxiliary to the Bevatron orbit code BOC. The first, BEFCYF, interpolates among tabulated values of the median-plane magnetic flux density of the Bevatron to produce an equivalent array of values in a form appropriate to BOC. The second, DBDT, produces azimuthal derivatives of the fields produced by BEFCYF. The internal operation of BEFCYF and DBDT is described, and instructions for their execution are given.
Bond Energies, Valence State Energies And Resonance¹,²
Previous attempts to interpret chemical structure in terms of x-electron resonance have been recently criticized. A reinterpretation of the lengths of the C-C bonds in terms of orbital radii has not revealed any effects of x-electron resonance in the ground states of classical molecules such as 1, 3-butadiene, methyl acetylene, etc. Even in a non-classical molecule such as benzene, resonance shortening of the CC bond is only in terms of the strengths of the hybrid orbitals. If the lengths and force constants of the C-C bonds vary with hybridization, so also must their bond energies. If resonance is not important in classical molecules, the heat of atomization of a classical molecule must be given by the sum of either the energies of the bonds or the contributions of the atoms present in it. To test this theory, we have estimated the contributions of some standard carbon atoms, viz., primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, trigonal, and diagonal carbon atoms.
Bremsstrahlung
An electron can suffer a very large acceleration in passing through the Coulomb field of a nucleus, and in this interaction the radiant energy (photons) lost by the electrons is called bremsstrahlung (also, bremsstrahlung sometimes designates the interaction itself). If an electron whose total energy [formula] traverses matter of atomic number Z, the electron loses energy chiefly by bremsstrahlung. This case is considered here.
Calculation of Explosion-Produced Craters
In this study, a physical-numerical model is used to investigate processes important for cratering, or excavation, physics for high-explosive sources in desert alluvium. High explosives do not vaporize much of the geological environment surrounding the initial cavity containing the explosive. Thus, a relatively simple, and in some cases a well-known, equation of state exists for the high-explosive cavity gas for pressure greater than 1 atmosphere. However, nuclear explosives are known to vaporize a great deal of surrounding geological environment during the early part of cavity life history. This vaporized material is believed to condense late in the life history of the cavity, and prior to vent of the cavity gas to the atmosphere, such that the latent heat of condensation plays an important role in nuclear excavation. So far, no numerical-physical models of the response of a geologic environment to a nuclear explosive includes the effect of condensation on the hydrodynamics of late times. Thus, the calculation of the cavity pressure at late times including the effect of condensation is one of the current unsolved problems in the calculation of a crater formed by nuclear explosives. This study, then, develops a predictive, numerical-physical model for H.E. sources of the cavity life history, the earth's free-surface motion, and the formation of the lip (by up-thrust) up to the time of the vent of the cavity gas to the atmosphere.
Calculation Of The Shock Wave From An Underground Nuclear Explosion In Granite
In any underground nuclear explosion, the shock front that propagates from the shot point carries with it energy from the explosion, and distributes this energy by doing work on the surrounding material. In the process, the material undergoes changes in both its physical and mechanical states. If enough energy is deposited in the material, it will vaporize or melt thus changing its physical state, or cause it to crush or crack. During the past few years, special computer codes have been developed for predicting the close-in phenomena of underground nuclear explosions using the laws of physics, and the knowledge of the properties of the materials in which the detonations occur. As a consequence, a better understanding of experimental observations and measurements has evolved.
Calibration Of Bridgman Anvils, A Pressure Scale To 125 Kbars
It is shown that a radial pressure gradient exists in the silver chloride when it is used as the pressure transmitting medium in Bridgman anvils. The gradient can be obviated by the use of circular sections of wire. The center of curvature of the wire hoop is made coincident with the anvil center. When the inner and outer diameters of the pyrophyllite retaining ring are 1/2 and 7/16" respectively, the pressure, P, is P = (0.725 + 0.468R) L where R is the fractional displacement from the center, and L is the average pressure as determined from the total load and area of the anvil face. The above appears to be valid to 125 Kbars. The Bismuth 6-8 transition is found to accur at 88+3 Kbars.
Carrier-Free Separation Of Hafnium From Rare-Earth Oxides
A carrier-free separation of hafnium from several hundred milligrams of rare earth oxides by anion exchange from saturated HC1 solution is given. The procedure is completed in 4-8 hours and is suitable for remote control work.
Characteristics Of Radioactivity Produced By Nuclear Explosives
The production of energy by nuclear reactions results in the production of radioactive nuclei. Therefore, in considering the possible utilization of nuclear explosives for peaceful purposes it is necessary to be able to predict the expected activities, their amounts, and dispositions. The amounts and kinds of radioactivities produced by detonation of a nuclear explosive are dependent upon the specific design of the explosive. The behavior and ultimate fate of the activities produced by the explosion depend on the composition of the medium in which the detonation occurs, the nature of the detonation, and the chemical species involved.
Chemical Reactions In Crossed Molecular Beams
Even in its present primitive stage the molecular beam method promises to open up many opportunities for detailed studies of reactive collisions. The early results described here have revealed several features inaccessible to the traditional methods of kinetics. We hope this program of beam studies will ultimately provide the basis for constructing a theory of the molecular mechanics of reactions. By borrowing what are now everyday techniques in nuclear physics (modulation of the beams; mass analysis and counting of detected ions) it appears possible to gain from four to six orders of magnitude.
The Class of Shocks With Uniform Pressure
If a piston with constant velocity moves into a shock tube containing material at rest and at uniform density, the result is well known and trivial. The shock propagates with uniform speed, the state and speed of the material behind the shock is constant. One can ask if similar flows exist for cylindrical of spherical symmetry. Quickly one rules out the possibility of a solution which retains all the properties of this trivial solution. One asks if there are any solutions such that the material behind the shock is not accelerated. Indeed, there are. In the following, it is shown that for a y-law gas, there is a family of densities such that if a piston moves into the material with uniform velocity, the material behind the shock is not accelerated. Further, these are the only densities with this property. In the case of planar symmetry, the trivial case mentioned above is a member of the family, as is to be expected.
Close-Capture Adsorption System For Remote Radioisotope Chemistry
Molecular sieves are synthetic zeolites which, when dehydrated, contain a network of empty pores and cavities that constitute almost 50% of the total volume of the crystals. They have the unique property of adsorbing within these cavities only those molecules that are small enough to pass through the pores of the crystals, Molecular sieves have a very strong affinity for water and other polar molecules. It is this selective property plus their stability and reasonable cost that make them of interest for the application described herein.
Code Listings for the Floss III - Compatible Programs Including Floss Type 3 and Type 12, Nomac, and Dash N
FLOSS III is a third-generation version of a digital computer program which solves a one-dimensional difference representation of the momentum, energy, continuity, and state equations for turbulent, compressible gas flow in equivalent hydraulic channels. Extensive use of this program has been employed in the design and performance analyses of Pluto-type nuclear heat exchangers, and in the specific case of the Tory II-A test series, agreement was obtained to better than 5% for all experimentally measured parameters. The NOMAC and DASH-N programs combine the effects of up to thirty varieties of channels with the dependent boundary conditions imposed by a common inlet diffuser and exit nozzle. The resulting calculations yield performance information for blow-down facility and ramjet flight condition application of the heat exchanger.
Color Production From Energetic Ions Impinging On Metals
It has been observed that energetic gaseous ions mark their region of impingement on certain metals in color. Under identical conditions of bombardment, multicharged ions of the same gas mark their impact areas with different colors. The colors are sensitive to the type and energy of the ion as well as to the metal bombarded. These colors may result from reflections from thin films formed by reactions at the target. Because the colors indicate that thicker films are produced with increased ion energy, ion penetration depth as predicted by theory is compared with the depth indicated by the colors observed.
The Complete Bound Spectrum Of The Negative Hydrogen Ion
Ever since the existence of a bound state of Hydrogen was discovered, it has been uncertain whether any other bound states existed. In addition to its importance in astrophysics this question has also come up in discussions of the scattering of electrons from hydrogen. To settle this problem it is necessary to calculate lower bounds for the eigenvalues of the Schrodinger equation. A simple calculation has been carried out for the problem of the negative hydrogen ion.
Contained Nuclear Detonations in Four Media - Geological Factors in Cavity and Chimney Formation
Recent underground nuclear tests conducted by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission have yielded data on the effects of contained nuclear explosions in four rock mediums: tuff, alluvium, rock salt, and granite. This report presents and compares data obtained primarily through exploratory mining and drilling into the postshot environment of 35 such events.
Cosmic Rays From Large Supernovae
The theory of the hydrodynamic origin of cosmic rays proposed by Johnson and the author (Colgate) has developed to the point where the final evolution of a star to the supernova instability and subsequent explosion can be described with sufficient detail such that cosmic rays with appropriate intensity, composition, and spectrum to account for observations are a logical and necessary result. In the first publication it was pointed out that nuclei in the surface of the star may acquire many orders or magnitude more than the average energy per particle released in the explosion because of the large ratio of matter density between the core and the outer mantle. A shock from a sudden pressure increase in the core intensifies as it advances into lower-density material, thereby imparting extreme relativistic energies to the outermost layers. The shock wave was assumed on the basis that the observed explosion occurred in a time short compared to the traversal time of sound across the dimensions of the star. It was argued without proof that an adiabatic process would be inconsistent with the accepted gravitational instability as the trigger mechanism. In an attempt to confirm this supposition we extend the hydrodynamic calculations to describe in detail the initial gravitational unstable collapse of a highly evolved massive star as first predicted by Burbidge et al.
Cratering Experience With Chemical And Nuclear Explosives
Over the past 13 years a considerable body of data on explosive cratering has been developed for application to nuclear excavation projects. These data were obtained from some ten cratering programs using chemical explosives (TNT or nitromethane) and seven nuclear cratering detonations. The types of media studied have ranged from marine muck to hard, dry basalt, although most effort has been devoted to craters in NTS desert alluvium and basalt. Considerable effort has also been devoted to the study with chemical explosives of the use of linear explosives and rows of point charges. This paper is intended to be a summary of these data and a statement of the understanding which has been developed from them.
Crystal Structure Of B 'Cu0.75Al0.25
The problem of crystal structure of the martensitic B1 phase of the eutectic alloy in the Cu-Al system still requires a more accurate clarification (Hun ger and Dienst 1960, Tarora 1949). Martensitic phases in general are formed through small thrust (shear) deformations of the original lattice. On this basis the results of Hunger and Dienst (1960) are doubtful, since the lattice constants found by them have required a considerable reclassification. From the known lattice constants of the B1 phase (Tarora, 1949) and the orientation relationships of the B1 phase (Wassermann, 1934) one has expected a hexagonal lattice for the martensitic phase with [formula].
The Crystal Structure Of Cobalt Sulfate Hexahydrate
Calorimetric measurements by Rao and Giauque (1960) showed some unaccountable residual entropy in crystals of [formula] at low temperatures. We have investigated the crystal structure in search of an explanation of the disorder. The resulting structure offers no possibility of disordered rings of hydrogen bonds such as were found in [formula], nor do we find any other explanation of the entropy discrepancy.
Crystal Structure Of Propionic Acid
The crystal structures of the normal fatty acids of low molecular weight have been rather neglected until recently. Formic acid and acetic acid occur in the solid as hydrogen-bonded linear polymers, while several acids with eleven or more carbon atoms per molecule exist in the solid as dimers. The melting points of these acids, when plotted against number of carbon atoms, fall on two rather similar curves for even and odd numbers of carbon atoms, respectively, each with a minimum near five carbon atoms. These facts and hope of explaining the melting-point behavior led us to examine the structures of propionic and butyric acid crystals. These crystals have different structures, but both contain dimers.
Current Status Of Curium Inhalation Exposures In Humans
An incident is described concerning a curium accelerator target aerolized by explosion. Management of the spill, sampling, particle sizing, and medical findings are presented. Seven of the 27 persons present showed low levels of curium excretion. The data from this incident were compared with those from three other inhalation exposures to curium compounds at Lawrence Laboratory.
Current-Switching Circuitry
This paper discusses a group of high-speed switching circuits using the basic current-switching mode of operation. The first part of the paper presents a dynamic analysis of the basic current-switching mode and the second part is the dynamic and steady-state analysis of a current-switching flip-flop.
Cyclotrons
The structure and operation of cyclotrons are discussed. Factors limiting cyclotron size and energy are given. Improvements to the basic continuous-wave cyclotron are described, including frequency modulation, strong focusing, and variable-energy facilities.
Data Processing For Bubble Chambers
The computer program which performs spatial reconstruction of events photographed in a bubble chamber is required to eliminate human and digitizer errors. It recognizes and corrects for single nuclear scatterings in the presence of multiple Coulomb scatterings. Momentum components are determined and kinematic constraints are applied. Measured parameters are performed into special reference frames and quantities of physical interest are calculated. Results are stored in a tape file containing all events of one reaction type.
Decay-Energy Systematics Of The Heavy Elements
Figures 1 and 2 summarize total decay energies for the four radioactive series. The alpha-decay energy obtained by measuring the energy of the alpha particle leading to the ground state includes the energy of the recoil nucleus. The curve shown in figure 3 defines in broad outline the conditions and regions of alpha instability. A great deal more is to be learned from a more detailed examination of the region where alpha radioactivity is prominent. Of great value to the experimentalist is that he is able to predict alpha energies, and the agreement between predicted and measured values often serves as a criterion for isotopic assignment. A number of systems for correlating alpha decay energies have been employed, and that perhaps most widely used is illustrated in figure 4. Here the isotopes of each element on a mass number vs. energy plot are joined, resulting in a family of curves which over a wide region comprise a series of nearly parallel lines.
Deposition Of Thermal Energy By Nuclear Explosives
A fraction of the energy released by the underground detonation of nuclear explosives is locally deposited as residual thermal energy. An accurate prediction of this usable fraction of the energy released is necessary to evaluate the feasibility of several of the proposed projects in the Plowshare Program. This paper will present a summary of the available data on residual thermal energy from nuclear detonations in three different geological media: tuff, halite, and granodiorite.
Design Considerations Of Ultrahigh Vacuum Systems For Metallurgical Applications
Under the stimulus of electronic materials development - particularly thin-film studies - and the need for space environmental simulation chambers, a very rapid increase in the availability of industrial-sized vacuum components and systems operable in the ultrahigh vacuum range has taken place in the last three years. It is the purpose of this paper to explore the design considerations of ultrahigh vacuum systems for metallurgical applications.
Determination of the Nucleon-Nucleon Elastic Scattering Matrix : I. Phase Shift Analysis of Experiments Near 140 MEV
A phase shift analysis is an attempt to translate experimental measurements (observables) into well-determined scattering amplitudes, since these are the quantities that can be readily compared with theoretical predictions, In this sense, the phase shift analysis should contain as little theory as possible. The scattering amplitudes (or phase shifts) constitute an experimental statement, and the phase shift analysis should logically be done by the experimental groups who measure the observables.
Digital-Computer Analysis Of Data From Bubble Chambers. IV. The Kinematic Analysis Of Complete Events
A digital computer program called KICK (K-meson Interaction Coplanarization and Kinematics), which carries out the analysis of complete bubble chamber events, is described.
Dislocation Substructures In Deformed And Recovered Molybdenum
Specimens suitable for transmission electron microscopy have been prepared from bulk polycrystalline molybdenum after tensile deformation and recovery. The resulting dislocation substructures are described. Some tentative conclusions concerning the mechanism of plastic deformation in molybdenum are discussed.
Double Meson Production In Proton-Deuteron Collisions. II
In a previous publication we reported measurements of the momentum spectra of He<sup>3 and H<sup>3 nuclei produced in collisions of 740-MeV protons with deuterium. The He<sup>3 spectrum exhibited an anomaly in the form of a peak in the region corresponding to double pion production. For reactions resulting in a He<sup>3 the two pions (or particle) can be isotopic spin states 0 or 1; if a H<sup>3 nucleus results only 1 = 1 is allowed. We have since repeated the experiment with a new arrangement which enabled us to measure both the He<sup.3 and H<sup>3 spectra with improved resolution and accuracy.
A Dynamic Method For Mercury Vapor Detector Calibration
The calibration of mercury vapor detectors has always posed a problem because of the difficulty of generating known concentrations of mercury vapor in air. The purpose of this study was to design an apparatus that would generate and chemically measure known concentrations of mercury vapor in air for calibration work.
The Effect of Temperature on the Yield Strength of the Polycrystalline Hexagonal Ag-Al Intermetallic Phase
The effect of temperature on the yield strength of the polycrystalline hexagonal Ag-Al intermetallic phase was investigated over the temperature range 77 to 775 K. It was found that the curve for yield stress vs temperature for both polycrystalline Ag-33 at .% Al specimens that were heavily cold worked prior to deformation and those that were recrystallized prior to deformation was parallel to that for prismatic slip in single crystals.
Effects Of A Magnetic Field On Natural Convection In A Toroidal Channel
The problem of the natural convection of an electrically and thermally conducting fluid within a long, narrow, vertical toroidal channel centered in a large block of an electrically and thermally conducting solid is analyzed. A uniform horizontal magnetic field is applied to the fluid, and the bottom of the solid block is maintained at a higher fixed temperature than the top. The laminar steady-state single-cell convective motion of the fluid is considered and an approximate solution is found for the heat transfer rate between the bottom and top surfaces of the block in the limiting cases of small and large Hartmann number. A numerical example is given for liquid sodium in which the application of a magnetic field of a few hundred gauss is shown to significantly reduce the rate of heat transfer.
The Effects Of Seismic Waves On Structures And Other Facilities
The effects of explosion-induced ground motion must be evaluated in planning and executing any nuclear excavation project. For some projects ground use intensity may dictate the use of less-than-optimum yields to minimize damaging effects. In remote areas, weighing the alternatives of outright purchase of some property or use of smaller yields may be required. The cost of indemnifying owners against damage must be considered in any case. Discussions of the effects of ground motion on three broad types of facilities - engineered structures, residential buildings, and equipment required for the support of nuclear excavation operations - are presented. A method of predicting the response of single- and multi-storied buildings, the response spectrum technique, is discussed, with emphasis on the application of explosion-induced spectra.
Elastic Scattering of 31-Mev He3 Ions From Several Elements
The absolute differential cross sections for elastic scattering of 31-Mev He3 ions on Be, Al, Cu, Sn(nat), Sn120, and Bi have been measured in the angular range of approximately 10 to 120 deg in the center-of-mass system. Thin self-supporting foil targets were chosen to span the parameter A 1/3, where A is the target mass number. The first excited states of the isotopes of the above elements had sufficient energy separation from the ground state to enable elastic scattering to be resolved from inelastic scattering. The detection system, consisting of Cal(Tl) scintillation crystals, was capable of 3%pulse-height resolution and 1 degree angular resolution. Characteristically, the light-element angular distributions show strong diffraction effects. The differential cross section divided by the Rutherford cross section decreases exponentially at large angles for the heavy elements, and the differential cross sections break away from Rutherford behavior at angles which increase almost linearly with increase of atomic number of the target nucleus. A comparison of the results for natural tin, and tin enriched to 85% in Sn120, indicated that within the experimental uncertainties over the measured angular interval, there were no pronounced isotopic effects. The data are presented both in tabular and graphical form to allow detailed comparison with theory.
Electrical Limitations To Energy Resolution In Semiconductor Particle Detectors
Based on the assumption that the noise contribution of a semiconductor detector is due solely to the bulk properties of the semiconductor, equations are presented which indicate the theoretical limits of noise in detector-amplifier combinations. These equations show that an optimum amplifier time constant and detector bias voltage exist for which condition the minimum noise is independent of the semiconductor resistivity. The optimum performance of a detector-amplifier system is shown to depend only upon detector area, input capacity (less detector capacity), semiconductor minority carrier lifetime, and the transconductance of the amplifier input tube. A new detector structure including a guard-ring electrode as an integral part of the detector structure is described which largely eliminates noise due to surface leakage. Experimental results for detector leakage and energy resolution are presented which agree well with theory.
Electromagnetic Properties Of A Charged Vector Meson
A systematic study is made of the electromagnetic properties of charged vector mesons. The various formalisms used to describe charged particles of spin 1 are compared, and a new first-order formulation of the Stuckelberg theory is developed.
Electron-Electron Coincidence Spectrometer BRS-IV
This report summarizes the original construction and recent modifications of the electron-electron coincidence spectrometer BRS-IV located in Building 70 of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. In addition to new information on the modified spectrometer, this report also contains a large amount of material taken from two previous UCRL reports.
Energy Response And Physical Properties Of NTA* Personnel Neutron Dosimeter Nuclear Track Film
This paper reports the chemical and physical properties of the NTA film packet. It correlates with these properties the response of this packet to neutrons of various energies. In this correlation the concept of the track unit is introduced as a basic unit for reporting film-packet response.
The Equation Of State Of PBX 9404 And LX04-01
The Chapman-Jouguet pressure and equation of state of the high explosives PBX 9404 and LX04-01 have been experimentally derived. To assure a strictly one-dimensional geometry, spheres of high explosives were used. Experimental measurements of the radius-time history of material accelerated by the explosive gases were used in conjunction with finite difference calculations of the hydrodynamic equations to obtain some previous inaccessible data on high explosives.
Evidence For a T = 0 Resonance in the Z[ ] System
In previous letters we have reported a Av resonance, called Y*1, observed through the study of the interaction of 1.15-Bev/c K* mesons in hydrogen in the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory 15-in. bubble chamber. We now wish to report the results of the study of the three reactions [formula](1), [formula](2) and [formula](3).
An Experimental Check On The Range-Energy Curve Of Pions In Propane
The kinetic energies of pions from radioactive decays in propane have been determined by using the information given by the angles of the secondary particles. This method is independent of any range-energy relation.
Experiments On Alfven-Wave Propagation
This paper reports an extension of previous experimental work with Alfven waves. We consider hydromagnetic waves propagating in a cylindrical plasma in a uniform axial magnetic field. The copper tube is filled with highly ionized plasma by an electrically driven switch-on ionizing wave. After the tube is filled with plasma, a hydromagnetic wave is induced by a radial current flow from the small molybdenum electrode to the copper tube. The force produced by this radial current together with the static axial magnetic field displaces the plasma in the azimuthal direction, and a transverse wave is propagated in the axial direction, along magnetic field lines. The transient magnetic field associated with the wave is also in the azimuthal direction.
Experiments With Pulsed Magnetic Cusps
Experiments with a simple pulsed magnetic field in cusped geometry are described. The plasma is generated inside the containment region rather than injected from an external source. It was found that creation of the plasma by a linear pinch discharge is most successful. Only qualitative studies have been carried out so far, using time-resolved visual observation of the plasma. Well-defined plasma bodies located in the central region between the cells were photographed. In order to make them clearly visible, a few percent of argon was added to the hydrogen.
Exponential Signal Rate-Of-Rise Measurement Instrument
The increasing exponential function e-at [a > 0] characterizes such natural events as gas discharges, neutron multiplication, and the transistor avalanche phenomenon. This report describes an instrument for measuring the rate of rise, a, of an increasing electrical exponential signal.
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