The Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) has identified the integration of copper (Cu) with low-dielectric-constant (low-k) materials as a critical goal for future interconnect architectures. A fundamental understanding of the chemical interaction of Cu with various substrates, including diffusion barriers and adhesion promoters, is essential to achieve this goal. The objective of this research is to develop novel organic polymers as Cu/low-k interfacial layers and to investigate popular barrier candidates, such as clean and modified tantalum (Ta) substrates. Carbon-silicon (C-Si) polymeric films have been formed by electron beam bombardment or ultraviolet (UV) radiation of molecularly adsorbed vinyl silane precursors on metal substrates under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. Temperature programmed desorption (TPD) studies show that polymerization is via the vinyl groups, while Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) results show that the polymerized films have compositions similar to the precursors. Films derived from vinyltrimethyl silane (VTMS) are adherent and stable on Ta substrates until 1100 K. Diffusion of deposited Cu overlayers is not observed below 800 K, with dewetting occurred only above 400 K. Hexafluorobenzene moieties can also be incorporated into the growing film with good thermal stability. Studies on the Ta substrates demonstrate that even sub-monolayer coverages of oxygen or carbide on polycrystalline Ta significantly degrade the strength of Cu/Ta chemical interactions, and affect the kinetics of Cu diffusion into bulk Ta. On clean Ta, monolayer coverages of Cu will de-wet only above 600 K. A partial monolayer of adsorbed oxygen (3L O2 at 300 K) results in a lowering of the de-wetting temperature to 500 K, while saturation oxygen coverage (10 L O2, 300 K) results in de-wetting at 300 K. Carbide formation also lowers the de-wetting temperature to 300 K. Diffusion of Cu into the Ta substrate at 1100 K occurs only after a 5-minute induction period. This induction period increases …
This study is an investigation of the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of aluminum and copper on fluoropolymer surfaces and the subsequent interfacial interactions.
The United States leads the world in per capita production of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), generating approximately 200 million tons per year. By 2000 A.D. the US EPA predicts a 20% rise in these numbers. Currently the major strategies of MSW disposal are (i) landfill and (ii) incineration. The amount of landfill space in the US is on a rapid decline. There are -10,000 landfill sites in the country, of which only 65-70% are still in use. The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) predicts an 80% landfill closure rate in the next 20 years. The development of a viable energy resource from MSW, in the form of densified Refuse Derived Fuel (dRDF), provides solutions to the problems of MSW generation and fossil fuel depletions. Every 2 tons of MSW yields approximately 1 ton of dRDF. Each ton of dRDF has an energy equivalent of more than two barrels of oil. At current production rates the US is "throwing away" over 200,000,000 barrels of oil a year. In order to be considered a truly viable product dRDF must be extensively studied; in terms of it's cost of production, it's combustion properties, and it's potential for environmental pollution. In 1987 a research team from the University of North Texas, in conjunction with the US DOE and Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), cofired over 550 tons of dRDF and bdRDF with a high sulfur Kentucky coal in a boiler at ANL. This work examines the emission rates of polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) and furans (PCDFs) during the combustion of the dRDF, bdRDF, and coal. Even at levels of 50% by Btu content of dRDF in the fuel feedstock, emission rates of PCDDs and PCDFs were below detection limits. The dRDF is shown to be an environmentally acceptable product, which could help resolve one of the …
The determination of carbon monoxide is also possible by trapping CO on preconditioned molecular sieve and thermal desorption. Analysis in this case is performed by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy, although the trapping technique is applicable to other suitable GC techniques.
Hartree-Fock, Moller-Plesset, and density functional theory calculations have been carried out using 6-31+G(d), 6-31+G(d,p) and 6-31++G(d,p) basis sets to study the properties of low-barrier or short-strong hydrogen bonds (SSHB) and their potential role in enzyme-catalyzed reactions that involve proton abstraction from a weak carbon-acid by a weak base. Formic acid/formate anion, enol/enolate and other complexes have been chosen to simulate a SSHB system. These complexes have been calculated to form very short, very short hydrogen bonds with a very low barrier for proton transfer from the donor to the acceptor. Two important environmental factors including small amount of solvent molecules that could possibly exist at the active site of an enzyme and the polarity around the active site were simulated to study their energetic and geometrical influences to a SSHB. It was found that microsolvation that improves the matching of pK as of the hydrogen bond donor and acceptor involved in the SSHB will always increase the interaction of the hydrogen bond; microsolvation that disrupts the matching of pKas, on the other hand, will lead to a weaker SSHB. Polarity surrounding the SSHB, simulated by SCRF-SCIPCM model, can significantly reduce the strength and stability of a SSHB. The residual strength of a SSHB is about 10--11 kcal/mol that is still significantly stable compared with a traditional weak hydrogen bond that is only about 3--5 kcal/mol in any cases. These results indicate that SSHB can exist under polar environment. Possible reaction intermediates and transition states for the reaction catalyzed by ketosteroid isomerase were simulated to study the stabilizing effect of a SSHB on intermediates and transition states. It was found that at least one SSHB is formed in each of the simulated intermediate-catalyst complexes, strongly supporting the LBHB mechanism proposed by Cleland and Kreevoy. Computational results on the activation energy for …
Dissertation research involves development of Mobile Order Theory thermodynamic models to mathematically describe and predict the solubility, spectral properties, protonation equilibrium constants and two-phase partitioning behavior of solutes dissolved in binary solvent mixtures of analytical importance. Information gained provide a better understanding of solute-solvent and solvent-solvent interactions at the molecular level, which will facilitate the development of better chemical separation methods based upon both gas-liquid and high-performance liquid chromatography, and better analysis methods based upon complexiometric and spectroscopic methods. Dissertation research emphasizes chemical equilibria in systems containing alcohol cosolvents with the understanding that knowledge gained will be transferable to more environmentally friendly aqueous-organic solvent mixtures.
A group of azabiphenyl complexes and supramolecules, and their reduced and oxidized forms when possible, were characterized by cyclic voltammetry and electronic absorption spectroscopy. The oxidized and reduced species, if sufficiently stable, were further generated electrochemically inside a specially designed quartz cell with optically transparent electrode, so that the spectra of the electrochemically generated species could be taken in situ. Assignments were proposed for both parent and product electronic spectra. Species investigated included a range of Ru(II) and Pt(II) complexes, as well as catenanes and their comparents. Using the localized electronic model, the electrochemical reduction can be in most cases assigned as azabiphenyl-based, and the oxidation as transition metal-based. This is consistent with the fact that the azabiphenyl compounds have a low lying π* orbital. The electronic absorption spectra of the compounds under study are mainly composed of π —> π* bands with, in some cases, charge transfer bands also.
Chain conformations and the presence of chain overlaps and entanglements in dilute polymer solutions have been analyzed. The fundamental problem of existence of chain overlaps in dilute solutions is related to the drag reduction phenomenon (DR). Even though DR occurs in solutions with the concentration of only few parts per million (ppm), some theories suggest that entanglements may play an important role in DR mechanism. Brownian dynamics technique have been used to perform simulations of dilute polymer solutions at rest and under shear flow. A measure of interchain contacts and two different measures of entanglements have been devised to evaluate the structure of polymer chains in solution. Simulation results have shown that overlaps and entanglements do exist in static dilute solutions as well as in solutions under shear flow. The effect of solution concentration, shear rate and molecular mass have been examined. In agreement with the solvation theory of DR mechanism, simulation results have demonstrated the importance of polymer + polymer interactions in dilute solutions.
The purpose of this study was to determine the factors affecting the acid degradation of chrysotile asbestos (Mg_3Si_2O_5(OH_4)) . Millions of tons of asbestos have found use in this country as insulative or ablative material. More than 95 percent of the asbestos in use is of the chrysotile variety. The remaining 5 percent is composed of various types of fibrous amphiboles. The inhalation of asbestos can lead to several diseases in humans. Asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma are the most common afflictions associated with asbestos inhalation, and they may occur up to 40 years after the initial exposure. It has previously been reported that if more than 50 percent of the magnesium is removed from a chrysotile sample its carcinogenicity is reduced to nil. Several inorganic acids were studied to determine their ability to leach magnesium from chrysotile. It was found that the ability to leach magnesium was dependent upon the acidic anion in addition to the concentration of the acid. The ordering of the efficiency of the acids in their ability to remove magnesium from chrysotile was found to be HCl > H_2SO_4 > H_3PO_4 > HNO_3. Predictive equations were developed to allow the calculation of the amount of magnesium removed under various acid concentrations as a function of time and acid species. The effects of temperature and dissolved spectator cations upon the degradation process were also examined. There was no major effect on the amount of magnesium removed as a function of spectator cation concentration. An infrared method was also developed to allow the determination of the percent degradation of a chrysotile sample directly. The shifts in the positions of three silicate stretching peaks (1068 cm^-1, 948 cm^-1 and 715 cm^-1) and one magnesium oxygen stretching peak (415 cm"1) as a function of the percent magnesium removed were …
Part I. Diels-Alder cycloadditions of 1,2,3,4,9,9-hexachloro-1α,4α,4aα,8aβ-tetrahydro-l,4-methanonaphthalene (32) and 1,2,3,4,9,9-hexachloro-lα,4α,6,7- tetrahydro-l,4-methanonaphthalene (33) to 4-methyl- and 4-phenyl-l,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione [MTAD and PTAD, respectively] and to N-methylmaleimide (NMM) have been studied. The structures of several of the resulting cycloadducts were determined by X-ray crystallographic methods. The observed stereoselectivity of each of these Diels-Alder reactions was further investigated via application of theoretical methods. Thus, semiempirical (AMI) and ab initio molecular orbital calculations were used to calculate relative energies. Ab initio calculations were employed to perform frontier molecular orbital analyses of diene-dienophile interactions.
A variety of novel cage-functionalized pyridyl containing crown ethers have been prepared for use in selective alkali metal complexation studies. A highly preorganized, cage-functionalized cryptand also has been designed and has been synthesized for use as a selective Li+ complexant. The alkali metal picrate extraction profiles of these cage-functionalized crown ethers also have been studied. Novel cage-functionalized diazacrown ethers have been prepared for selective alkali metal complexation studies. Alkali metal picrate extraction experiments have been performed by using this new class of synthetic ionophores to investigate the effects of cage-annulation and the influence of N-pivot lariat sidearms upon their resulting complexation properties. Novel pyridyl containing calix[4]arene receptors were prepared. Analysis of their respective 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra suggests that calix[4]arene moieties in the ligand occupy the cone conformation. The complexation properties of these host molecules were estimated by performing a series of alkali metal picrate extraction experiments. An optically active cage-functionalized crown ether which contains a binaphthyl moiety as the chiral unit was prepared. The ability of the resulting optically active crown ether to distinguish between enantiomers of guest ammonium ions (i.e., phenylethylamonium and phenylglycinate salts) in transport experiments was investigated. Hexacyclo[11.2.1.02,12.05,10.05,15.010,14]hexadeca-6,8-diene-4,11-dione was prepared from hexacyclo[7.4.2.01,9.03,7.04,14.06,15] pentadeca-10,12-diene-2,8-dione. Unanticipated but remarkable acid and base promoted rearrangements of this new cage dione to novel polycyclic systems were observed and subsequently were investigated. The structures of the new systems thereby obtained were determined unequivocally by application of X-ray crystallographic methods. It is noteworthy that the reactions reported herein each provide the corresponding rearranged product in high yield in a single synthetic step. Pi-facial and regioselectivity in the thermal Diels-Alder cycloaddition between hexacyclo[11.2.1.02,12.05,10.05,15.010,14]hexadeca-6,8-diene- 4,11-dione and ethyl propiolate have been explored. This reaction proceeds via stereospecific approach of the dienophile toward the syn face of the diene p -system. However, [4+2]cycloaddition proceeds with …
NMR relaxation and Raman lineshape analysis are well known methods for the study of molecular reorientational dynamics in liquids. The combination of these two methods provides another approach to tackle the characterization of molecular dynamics in liquids. Investigations presented here include (1) NMR relaxation study of polycyclic compounds in solution, (2) the study of nitromethane reorientational dynamics using the NMR and Raman methods, and (3) Raman lineshape analysis of reorientation hexafluorobenzene/benzene mixtures.
The focus of this research is to explore the molecular-level interactions between reactive metal surfaces and aqueous environments by combined ultra-high vacuum/electrochemistry (UHV-EC) methodology. The objectives of this work are to understand (1) the effects of sulfate ions on the passivity of metal oxide/hydroxide surface layer, (2) the effects of sulfur-modification on the evolution of metal oxide/hydroxide surface layer, and (3) the effects of sulfur adsorbate on cation adsorption at metal surfaces.
The Kinetics of the reactions involving alkyl and silyl hydrides were studied by the flash photolysis / resonance fluorescence technique. The reactions of alkyl radicals (R = C₂H₅, i-C₃H₇, t-C₄H₉) with HBr have been studied at room temperature and the rate constants obtained (units are in cm³ s^-1 ) are: k₃.₃ = (7.01 ± 0.15) x 10^-12, k₃.₂ = (1.25 ± 0.06) x 10^-11, k₃.₁ = (2.67 ± 0.13) x 10^-11 These results, combined with previously determined reverse rate constants and other kinetic information, yield bond dissociation enthalpies (units in kJ mol^-1) at 298 K : primary C-H in C₂H₅-H (423.6 ± 2), secondary C-H in i-C₃H₇-H (409.9 ± 2), tertiary C-H in t-C₄H₉-H (405.1 ± 2). These rate constants and bond energies are in good agreement with previous results.
Pulsed laser flash photolysis with both visible and infrared detection has been applied to the study of the displacement of weakly coordinating ligands (Lw) by strongly "trapping" nucleophiles (Ls) containing either an olefinic functionality (Ls = 1-hexene, 1-decene, 1-tetradecene) or nitrogen (Ls = acetonitrile, hydrocinnamonitrile) from the photogenerated 16 electron pentacarbonylchromium (0) intermediate. 5-Chloropent-l-ene (Cl-ol), a potentially bidentate ligand, has been shown to form (ol-Cl) pentacarbonylchromium (0), in which Cl-ol is bonded to Cr via a lone pair on the chlorine, and isomerize to (Cl-ol) pentacarbonylchromium (0), in which Cl-ol is bonded to the olefinic functionality on the submillisecond time scale. This process has been studied in both the infrared and visible region employing both fluorobenzene or n-heptane as the "inert" diluent. Parallel studies employing 1-chlorobutane and 1-hexene were also evaluated and showed great similiarity with the Cl-ol system. The data supported a largely dissociative process with a possibility of a small interchange process involving the H's on the alkyl chain. Studies were also carried out for various Cr(CO)6/arene/Ls systems (arene = various alkyl or halogenated substituted benzenes). The data indicated that for both C6H5R (R=various alkyl chains) or multi-alkyl substituted arenes (i.e. o-xylene, 1,2,3-trimethylbenzene) containing an "unhindered" ring-edge, bonding to the the Cr(CO)5 moiety occurs "edge on" via a partially delocalized center of unsaturation on the ring. The data indicated that both electronic and steric properties of the arenes influence the kinetics, and that an interchange pathway takes place at least, in part, through the alkyl chains on both the arenes and "trapping" nucleophiles. Moreover, halogenated arenes bond through the lone pair on the halogen for both CI- and Br- derivatives but "edge-on" for the fluorinated arenes. Finally, in the case of arene complexes without and "unhindered" ring-edge (i.e., 1,2,3,4,5-pentamethylbenzene) bonding can occur either "edge-on" or through the ring …
Gas phase kinetics and thermochemistry of several halogenated species relevant to atmospheric, combustion and plasma chemistry were studied using experimental and ab initio theoretical techniques.
The kinetics of ligand substitution for CO in Co4(CO)10(mu4-PPh2) , 1, have been investigated for the ligands P(OMe)3, P(OEt)3, PPh2H, P(0-i-Pr)3, P(n-Bu)3, PPh3, P(i-Pr)3, and PCy3 over a wide temperature range.
Semiconductor devices are built using hyperpure silicon and very controlled levels of doping to create desired electrical properties. Contamination can alter these precisely controlled electrical properties that can render the device non-functional or unreliable. It is desirable to determine what impurities impact the device and control them. This study consists of four parts: a) determination of acceptable SCI (Standard Clean 1) bath contamination levels using VPD-DSE-GFAAS (Vapor Phase Decomposition Droplet Surface Etching Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy), b) copper deposition from various aqueous HF solutions, c) anion contamination from fluoropolymers used in chemical handling and d) metallic contamination from fluoropolymers and polyethylene used in chemical handling. A technique was developed for the determination of metals on a silicon wafer source at low levels. These levels were then correlated to contamination levels in a SCI bath. This correlation permits the determination of maximum permissible solution contaminant levels. Copper contamination is a concern for depositing on the wafer surface from hydrofluoric acid solutions. The relationship between copper concentration on the wafer surface and hydrofluoric acid concentration was determined. An inverse relationship exists and was explained by differences in diffusion rates between the differing copper species existing in aqueous hydrofluoric acid solutions. Finally, sources of contamination from materials used in chemical handling was studied. The predominant anion contamination from fluoropolymers was found to be fluorides. Metallic contamination from fluoropolymers and polyethylene was also studied. The primary metal contamination comes from the actual fabrication of the polymer and not from the polymer resin.
Investigations presented here are (a) the study of reorientational dynamics and internal rotation in transition metal complexes by NMR relaxation experiments, and (b) the study of ligand exchange dynamics in transition metal complexes by exchange NMR experiments. The phenyl ring rotation in Ru3(CO)9(μ3-CO)(μ3-NPh) and Re(Co)2(CO)10(μ3- CPh) was monitored by 13C NMR relaxation experiments to probe intramolecular electronic and/or steric interactions. It was found that the rotation is relatively free in the first complex, but is restrained in the second one. The steric interactions in the complexes were ascertained by the measurement of the closest approach intramolecular distances. The rotational energy barriers in the two complexes were also calculated by using both the Extended Hiickel and Fenske-Hall methods. The study suggests that the barrier is due mainly to the steric interactions. The exchange NMR study revealed two carbonyl exchange processes in both Ru3(CO)9(μ3-CO)(μ3-NPh) and Ru3(CO)8(PPh3)(μ3-CO)(μ3-NPh). The lower energy process is a tripodal rotation of the terminal carbonyls. The higher energy process, resulting in the exchange between the equatorial and bridging carbonyls, but not between the axial and bridging carbonyls, involves the concerted formation of edge-bridging μ2-CO moieties. The effect of the PPh3 ligand on the carbonyl exchange rates has been discussed. A combination of relaxation and exchange NMR found that PPh3 ligand rotation about the Ru-P bond is slow on the exchange NMR time scale and the phenyl rotation about the P-Cipso bond is fast on the exchange NMR time scale but is slow on the NMR relaxation time scale.
Five different complexes of aluminum and amino acids have been synthesized and characterized. Reaction between aluminum halides and amino acids that do not contain either a carboxylate or a hydroxy group in the side chain produce complexes of the general formula, [Al(amino acid)_n(halide)_3-n]_m. The most prevalent form of this form of complex is where n = 2, and an example of this in which the halide is replaced by hydroxide ligand has been structurally characterized. The complex for which n = 3 may be obtained by employing a large excess of acid, and that for which n = 1 may be obtained by employing either equimolar conditions or an excess of aluminum halide. Reactions of aluminum halides with amino acids that contain either a carboxylate or hydroxy-containing side chain may result in complexes in which the side-chain is also bound. These proved impossible to characterize fully in the case of aspartic acid. For serine, however, a complex in which the amino acid binds in a chelating fashion through both the carboxylate and hydroxy groups was isolated. It was possible to form complexes when utilizing aluminum alkyls as the metal source. However, these complexes could only be isolated when the reactivity of the species was controlled by the presence of bulky groups. In these cases, the monomeric R_2Al(amino acid) complexes were obtained. Four complexes that contain aluminum-chalcogen bonds were structurally characterized. These included the bulky alkoxide complexes (BHT)_2AIH(OEt_2), (BHT)_3Al(cyclohexanone), and the cubane [(t-amyl)AlS]_4.
Calixarenes are a class of macrocyclic compounds that have garnered interest in large part because of their ability to form host-guest complexes with various types of molecules. For all of the studies of complex formation by calixarenes, most of the work to date has concentrated upon the smaller calixarenes, and little is understood about the relationship between the complexes formed when in solution and that observed in the solid state. The first part of the study, presented in Chapter 3, is of the solid-state properties of two of the larger calixarenes, and in comparison to other reported structures reveals patterns to the observed conformations both in the solid state and in solution. The formation of metal complexes has also been investigated and has focused extensively upon the metals as guests. Thus, the ability of the calixarenes to act as ligands in inorganic complexes has been virtually untapped, despite the polyoxo binding site they can easily provide, and very few metallocalixarenes have been reported. The second part of this study goes beyond the simple solid-state properties of such compounds, and involves the synthesis of several metallocalixarenes as part of a project directed at the functionalization of calixarenes with the components of a class of catalysts known to polymerize various olefins. These catalysts, commonly referred to as Ziegler-Natta catalysts, are introduced in Chapter 4. The new compounds presented here--three new aluminocalixarenes in Chapter 5 and a new titanocalixarene in Chapter 6--were synthesized so as to contain some of the same components observed in several of the other catalysts. These new compounds have been characterized crystallographically as well as through proton and multinuclear NMR, and observed conformational patterns are discussed.
Precipitates of a series of alkaline earth metal (barium and strontium) carbonates, chromates, phosphates, and sulfates were formed at high supersaturation by diffusion through silica hydrogel, agarose hydrogel, and the freshly developed agarosesilica mixed gels. The reaction vessels could be a small test tube, a recently designed standard micro slide cassette and a enlarged supercassette. Homogeneous nucleation is thought to have taken place, and particle development led to the formation of an unusual category of materials, known as Induced Morphology Crystal Aggregates [IMCA], at high pH under far-from-equilibrium conditions. Standard procedures were developed in order to produce homogeneous gels. Particle development led to characteristic style of pattern formation, which I have called monster, spiral, and flake. Among these IMCA, barium carbonate, chromate, and sulfate were moderately easy to grow. Barium phosphate was very difficult to grow as IMCA due to formation of poorly crystalline spherulites. IMCA of strontium carbonate, chromate and sulfate could be developed at high basic pH in the presence of silicate. Strontium carbonate sheet morphology displays a unique property, double internal layer structure, which was identified by backscattering electron imaging (BEI). Selected electron diffraction (SAD) revealed a new crystal phase which was called "Dentonite". Precipitate particles were isolated using a non-destructive isolation technique. Optical microscopy was widely used to examine particles in situ and scanning electron microscopy and X-ray dispersive energy (EDX) spectroscopy were applied to particles ex situ, together with ESCA for surface analysis. Growth patterns were found to be strongly dependent on pH. Other related pattern formation processes were also investigated including normal and dendritic structures, spherulitic structures and periodic pattern formation. Some interpretations were proposed in terms of mechanism. Chemical additive effects were examined experimentally in the calcium phosphate system. The effect of external ionic strength was investigated, and it was found that a …
1,1-Dimethyl-2-neopentylsilene reacted with the N-methylimine of benzophenone to give 1,2,2-trimethyl-3- neopentyl-4,4-diphenyl-l-aza-2-silacyclobutane, I, and 2,3,4,4a-tetrahydro-2,3,3-trimethyl-1-phenyl-4-neopentyl-2- aza-3-silanephthalene, II, in 35% and 20% yields, respectively. Compounds I and II did not serve as thermal silene precursors. Heating I and II to over 280°C did not yield 1,3-disilacyclobutanes. In the presence of 2,3- dimethyl-1,3-butadiene typical silene products were not obtained. However, I and II reacted rapidly with methanol at room temperature to give the ring-opened products (E)-2- methoxy-2,5,5-trimethyl-2-silahex-3-ene, III, 1,1- diphenyldimethylamine, IV, and 2-methoxy-2,5,5-trimethyl-3- (N-methylaminodiphenyl) methyl-2-silahexane, V.
Detection, identification and separation of polycyclic aromatic compounds in environmental samples are of extreme importance since many of these compounds are well known for their potential carcinogenic and/or mutagenic activities. Selective quenching of molecular fluorescence can be utilized effectively to analyze mixtures containing different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Molecularly organized assemblies are used widely in detection and separation of these compounds mainly because of less toxicity and enhanced solubilization capabilities associated with these media. Feasibility of using nitromethane and the alkylpyridinium cation as selective fluorescence quenching agents for discriminating between alternant versus nonalternant polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is critically examined in several molecularly organized micellar solvent media. Fluorescence quenching is used to probe the structural features in mixed micelles containing the various combinations of anionic, cationic, nonionic and zwitterionic surfactants. Experimental results provide valuable information regarding molecular interactions between the dissimilar surfactants.
Molecular rotational motions are known to influence both Raman scattering of light and nuclear spin relaxation. Therefore, the application of Raman bandshape analysis and NMR relaxation time measurements to probe molecular dynamics in liquids will provide us with a deeper understanding of the dynamical behavior and structure of molecules in the liquid phase. Presented here are (i) studies of molecular reorientation of acetonitrile in the neat liquid phase and in solution by Raman bandshape analysis and NMR relaxation; (ii) studies of reorientational dynamics and internal rotation in transition metal clusters by NMR relaxation.
Tungsten metal is used as an electrical conductor in many modern microelectronic devices. One of the primary motivations for its use is that it can be deposited in thin films by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). CVD is a process whereby a thin film is deposited on a solid substrate by the reaction of a gas-phase molecular precursor. In the case of tungsten chemical vapor deposition (W-CVD) this precursor is commonly tungsten hexafluoride (WF6) which reacts with an appropriate reductant to yield metallic tungsten. A useful characteristic of the W-CVD chemical reactions is that while they proceed rapidly on silicon or metal substrates, they are inhibited on insulating substrates, such as silicon dioxide (Si02). This selectivity may be exploited in the manufacture of microelectronic devices, resulting in the formation of horizontal contacts and vertical vias by a self-aligning process. However, reaction parameters must be rigorously controlled, and even then tungsten nuclei may form on neighboring oxide surfaces after a short incubation time. Such nuclei can easily cause a short circuit or other defect and thereby render the device inoperable. If this loss of selectivity could be controlled in the practical applications of W-CVD, thereby allowing the incorporation of this technique into production, the cost of manufacturing microchips could be lowered. This research was designed to investigate the loss of selectivity for W-CVD in an attempt to understand the processes which lead to its occurrence. The effects of passivating the oxide surface with methanol against the formation of tungsten nuclei were studied. It was found that the methanol dissociates at oxide surface defect sites and blocks such sites from becoming tungsten nucleation sites. The effect of reactant partial pressure ratio on selectivity was also studied. It was found that as the reactant partial pressures are varied there are significant changes in the …
The Sn/Pb eutectic alloy system is the most widely used joining material in the electronics industry. In this application, the solder acts as both an electrical and mechanical connection within and among the different packaging levels in an electronic device. Recent advances in packaging technologies, however, driven by the desire for miniaturization and increased circuit speed, result in severe operating conditions for the solder connection. In an effort to improve its mechanical integrity, metallic or intermetallic particles have been added to eutectic Sn/Pb solder, and termed composite solders. It was the goal of this study to investigate the growth and morphology of the two intermetallic phases (Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn) that form between a Cu substrate and Sn/Pb solder under different aging and annealing conditions.
With the values of 6Li T1 measured and the literature values of J(13C-6Li) for these compounds, three new 13C NMR techniques are developed for the analysis of organolithium compounds. Modifications to the spectrometer are discussed, as well as calibrations of the 6Li decoupler channel needed to set up these new experiments. The theoretical development of each technique is presented, as well as data from their verification, using organolithium compounds of known structure. Once qualified, the new experimental techniques are used to analyze a series of alkyllithium / lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates in solution, where structures and values of J(13C-6Li) may not be known. The combination of Ti relaxation measurements and 13C{1H, 6Li} triple resonance techniques serves as a means of determining the structure of organolithium aggregates in solution.
New one- and two-dimensional NMR techniques were used to elucidate the solution structures of these complex mixtures. The system, lithium tert-butoxide/tert-butyllithium, was studied as a model system with O/Li ratios varying from 0/1 to 1/1. It was found that at low O/Li ratios, a single mixed tetrameric aggregate was formed. At higher O/Li ratios, mixed hexameric species were formed. Two other systems, lithium isopropoxide/iso-propyllithium and lithium n-propoxide/n-propyllithium were also studied at low O/Li ratios.
One of the more attractive attributes of calixarenes is their wide variety of possible conformations and hence cavity shapes. However, the flexibility that allows this long-range benefit gives rise to major synthetic challenges when working with the larger members of the family. O-alkylations have proven to be the most widely employed synthetic routes to "functionalization" of the calixarenes, and these have shown a dependence upon both solvent and the metal ions present. Surprisingly, there have been no structural data presented concerning the complexes between the simple unsubstituted calix[6]arenes and the metal ions of groups 1 and 2. The structures of four complexes, containing cesium, rubidium, and calcium are reported as determined by X-ray crystallography. The solution behavior of the complexes for both representative groups is also discussed, in particular with regard to conformational stabilization of the calix[6]arenes and the role of solvent upon this stabilization. These complexes are also investigated as starting materials for the selective functionalization of the calix[6]arenes.
The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the behavior of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in binary solvent systems and determine and/or develop predictive mathematical expressions for describing solutions in which hydrogen-bonding occurs.
The fluorescence spectrum of many polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) depends upon solvent polarity. The emission spectrum of PAC monomers consists of several major vibronic bands labeled I, II, etc., in progressive order. Emission intensity enhancement of select bands is observed in polar solvents.
Part I. Reduction of the 1-methylpentacyclo [5.4.0.0²,⁶.0³,¹⁰,0⁵,⁹]undecane-8, 11-dione (9) with solid NaBH₄ resulted in highly stereoselective reduction of both C=O groups in the substrate, thereby affording the corresponding endo-8, endo-11-diol (11a). The configuration of 11a was established unequivocally by converting 11a into the corresponding cyclic thiocarbonate ester, 12. Part II. Z-1,2-Di(1'-adamantyl)ethene (14) was synthesized with a high degree of stereoselectively in four steps (Scheme 9 in Chapter 2). E-1,2-di(1'-adamantyl)ethene (15) was synthesized by iodine promoted isomerization of 14. Both structures were established unequivocally via single-crystal X-ray structural analysis. E-1-(exo-8'-Pentacyclo[5.4.0.0²,⁶.0³,¹⁰,0⁵,⁹]undecyl)-2-phenylethylene (16a) was synthesized, and its structure was established via analysis of its 1H, 13C, and 2D COSY NMR spectra. Part III. Reactions of electrophiles, i.e.,:CCl_2, PhSCl, and Br_2, to Z- and E-1,2-di(1'-adamantyl)ethenes (14 and 15, respectively) are described (Scheme 5, 8, 10, and 13 in Chapter 3). Structures of the corresponding products were established unequivocally via analysis of their respective one- and two-dimensional NMR spectra and/or single-crystal X-ray structural analysis. Part IV. An improved asymmetric synthesis of optically active (S)-4-hydroxy-2-cyclohexenone 1 (64%ee, determined via Mosher's method) has been developed (Scheme 5 in Chapter 4). The key step in this synthesis involves the baker's yeast reduction of 13. The absolute configuration of the major product, (S)-1, was established unequivocally via single-crystal X-ray structural analysis of a precursor. The optical purity of the major product 14a (80%de, 67%ee) was established via careful integration of relevant gated-decoupled 13C NMR spectra.
The effects of lithium alkoxides on the rates of reactions and on the structures of a series of tert-butyllithium/lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates were studied, where the alkoxides were iso-butoxide, tert-butoxide and menthoxide. It was found that their effects depend not only on their amount present, but also on their steric bulk. The tert-butyllithium/lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates were exposed to UV light or heat to form lithium hydride/lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates. The aggregation states were assigned from either 13C-6Li coupling or a new technique based on the relative intensity of NMR peaks using different nuclei. The compounds formed depend upon the method of formation and the alkoxide. The unique properties of the lithium hydride/lithium alkoxide mixed aggregates are their high solubility in hydrocarbon solutions, very reactive bases, showing 6Li-1H couplings, and having only one hydride ion per aggregate. Their formation, reactivity, solubility, and aggregation states were found to depend on the size of lithium alkoxides. X-ray crystal structures of lithium tert-butoxide and lithium menthoxide were also studied and found to be hexameric.
Flash photolysis techniques were applied to studies of solvent displacement by Lewis bases (L) from solvated metal carbonyl complexes of Cr, Mo, and W. On the basis of extensive studies of the reaction rate laws, activation parameters , and linear-free-energy-relationships, it was concluded that the mechanisms of solvent displacement reactions depend on the electronic and steric properties of the solvents and L, as well as the identities of the metal atoms. The strengths of solvent-metal bonding interactions, varying from ca. 7 to 16 kcal/mol, and the bonding "modes" of solvents to metals are sensitive to the structures of the solvent molecules and the identities of the metal centers. The results indicate dissociative desolvation pathways for many arene solvents in (solvent)Cr(CO)_5 (solvent = benzene, fluorobenzene, toluene, etc.) complexes, and are consistent with competitive interchange and dissociative pathways for (n-heptane)M(CO)_5. Different types of (arene)-Cr(CO)_5 interactions were suggested for chlorobenzene (CB) vs. fluorobenzene and other non-halogenated arenes, i.e. via σ-halogen-Cr bond formation in the CB solvate vs. π-arene-Cr bond formation through "isolated" double bonds in solvates of the other arenes. The data also indicate the increasing importance of interchange pathways for solvent displacement from the solvates of Mo and W vs. that of Cr.
This research was designed to investigate the hydration reaction of fly ash when exposed to water. The effects that calcium nitrate and calcium formate have on the hydration reactions were also examined.
One- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy, including 13C{6Li}{1H} triple resonance techniques, were used to characterize a series of mixed alkyllithium aggregates and to study their exchange processes.
The microstructural, mechanical and thermal properties of various composite solder formulations were investigated. Special interest was given in observing the processing properties, microstructural characteristics, fatigue behavior, tensile strength, and the effect of environmental ageing on the composite solder formulations. The solderability parameters wetting and speed of soldering, reflow temperature, and the thermal stability of the resulting composite solder were also examined.
The chemistry of transition metal clusters has been a fast developing area of organometallic research in recent years. Compared to mononuclear metal complexes, polynuclear clusters offer more opportunities to study cooperative effects and electron reservoir properties between contiguous metal centers, in addition to functioning as storehouses for the release of catalytically active small fragments capable of exhibiting heterosite subtrate activation. Theoretically, metal clusters are intermediates between mononuclear complexes and metal surfaces, i.e., they serve as a bridge between molecular and solid-state chemistry. Transition metal clusters are ideal candidates to study M-M interactions stretching from the single bond to the collective metallic behavior found in a three-dimensional network of metal atoms. The reaction between the redox-active diphoshpine ligand bpcd and RU(CO) has been examined under a variety of conditions. The disubstituted cluster Ru3(CO)10(bpcd)(2) has been synthesized and shown to contain a chealating bpcd ligand, on the basis of IR and 31P NMR data. The cluster 2 (chelating isomer) undergoes cluster fragmentation at ambient temperatures in the dark to give the binuclear compound 3 and Ru3(CO)12, with no evidence for the formation of 4. Both 3 and 4 have been isolated and fully characterized in solution by IR and NMR spectroscopy, and the solid-state structure of each new binuclear compound has been established by X-ray diffraction analysis. Independent experiments reveal that dinuclear 3 is converted to 4 by 366 nm light with a quantum efficiency of .0364.
The tricobalt cluster PhCCo3(CO)9 (1) reacts with the bidentate phosphine ligand 2,3-bis(diphenylphosphino)maleic anhydride (bma) in the presence of added Me3NO to give the diphosphine-substituted cluster PhCCo3(CO)7(bma) (2). Cluster 2 is unstable in solution, readily losing CO to afford Co3(CO)6[(μ2-η2/η1-C(Ph)C=C(PPh2)C(O)OC(O)](μ2-PPh2) (3) as the sole observed product. VT-31P NMR measurements on cluster 2 indicate that the bma ligand functions as both a chelating and a bridging ligand. At -97 °C, 31P NMR analysis of 2 reveals a Keq of 5.7 in favor of the bridging isomer. The bridged bma cluster 2 is the only observed species above -50°C. The solid-state structure of 2 does not correspond to the major bridging isomer observed in solution but rather the minor chelating isomer. The conversion of 2 to 3 followed first-order kinetics, with the reaction rates being independent of the nature of the reaction solvent and strongly suppressed by added CO, supporting a dissociative loss of CO as the rate-determining step. The activation parameters for CO loss were determined to be ΔH≠ = 29.9 ± 2.2 kcal/mol and ΔS≠ = 21.6 ± 6 eu.
Sulfur adsorbed on metallic and oxide surfaces, whether originating from gaseous environments or segregating as an impurity to metallic interfaces, is linked to the deterioration of alloy performance. This research dealt with investigations on the interactions between sulfur and iron or iron alloy metallic and oxide surfaces under ultrahigh vacuum conditions. Sulfur was either intentionally dosed from a H2S source on an atomically clean metal surface, or segregated out as an impurity from the bulk to the metal surface by annealing at elevated temperatures.
The nucleation and successful growth of copper (Cu) thin films on diffusion barrier/adhesion promoter substrates during metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) are strongly dependent on the initial Cu precursor-substrate chemistry and surface conditions such as organic contamination and oxidation. This research focuses on the interactions of bis(1,1,1,5,5,5-hexafluoroacetylacetonato)copper(II), [Cu(hfac)2], with polycrystalline tantalum (Ta) and polycrystalline as well as epitaxial titanium nitride (TiN) substrates during Cu MOCVD, under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions and low substrate temperatures (T < 500 K). The results obtained from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) and Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD) measurements indicate substantial differences in the chemical reaction pathways of metallic Cu formation from Cu(hfac)2 on TiN versus Ta surfaces.
A novel crown ether precursor was developed in which a rigid 4-oxahexacyclo (5.4.1.26.3,10.05,9.08,11) dodecyl cage moiety ("cage functionality") was incorporated.
Chapter I describes the synthesis of a trishomocubyl helical tubuland diol and some aspects of its inclusion chemistry. Thus, all three isomers of 4,7-dimethylpentacyclo[6.3.0.0^2,6.0^3,10.0^5,9]undecane-4,7-diol have been prepared and their X-ray structures have been determined. The syn,syn-isomer crystallizes in a double-stranded hydrogen-bonded lattice, while anti,syn-isomer forms a hydrogen-bonded layer lattice. In contrast, the anti,anti-isomer is a new member of the helical tubuland diol host family; its crystal lattice consists of parallel canals with a trefoil-shaped cross-section of area 25.4 Å^2. Chapter II describes the synthesis of new molecular clefts. These molecular clefts have been synthesized via base-promoted reactions of 3,6-diaryl-l,2,4,5-tetrazines with tetracyclo[6.3.0.0^4,11.0^5,9]undecane-3,6-dione and with tricyclo[6.3.0.0^2,6]undecane-3,11-dione, respectively. Compounds of this type are of interest as a potential new class of host molecules for use in host-guest complexation studies. Chapter III reports the synthesis of stereospecifically deuterated spiro(oxetane-3,8'-pentacyclo[5.4.0.0^2,6.0^3,10.0^5,9]undecanes) and their acid-promoted ring opening and concomitant rearrangements. The deuterium-containing reaction products have been characterized via analysis of their NMR and mass spectra. The results strongly suggest that intramolecular 1,5-hydride shifts provide an important pathway through which the acid promoted rearrangements occur. Chapter IV reports the oxidation of heptacyclo-[6.6.0.0^2,6.0^3,13.0^4,11.0^5,9.0^10,14] tetradecane (HCTD) via application of Barton's "GoAgg" systems. The products have been characterized by NMR and mass spectral analysis. Under GoAgg^v conditions, oxidation of HCTD proceeds to afford heptacyclo [6.6.0.0^2,6.0^3,13.0^4,11.0^5,9.0^10,14]tetradecan-7-one in 1% yield.
Part I: In the first study of pyrethroids, twenty-one novel pyrethroid esters bearing strong electron-withdrawing groups (e.g., halomethylketo and nitro groups) in the double bond side chain of the cyclopropane acid moiety have been synthesized and evaluated for insect toxicity. Rather than the usually employed Wittig reaction for these syntheses, the novel pyrethroid acid moieties were prepared by amino acidcatalyzed Knoevenagel condensations under mild conditions. In the second study of pyrethroids, fourteen pyrethroid-like carbonates were synthesized by condensation of a variety of alcohols and the chloroformates of the corresponding known pyrethroid alcohols.
The preparation of layered double hydroxides via titration with sodium hydroxide was thoroughly investigated for a number of M(II)/M(III) combinations. These titration curves were examined and used to calculate nominal solubility product constants and other thermodynamic quantities for the various LDH chloride systems.
The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the thermodynamic properties of nonelectrolyte solutes dissolved in ternary solvent mixtures, and to develop mathematical expressions for predicting and describing that behavior in the solvent mixtures. Thirty-four ternary solvent systems were studied containing either alcohol (1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, and 2-butanol), alkane (cyclohexane, heptane, and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane) or alkoxyalcohol (2-ethoxyethanol and 2-butoxyethanol) cosolvents. Approximately 2500 experimental measurements were performed. Expressions were derived from the Combined Nearly Ideal Multiple Solvent (NIMS)/Redlich-Kister, the Combined Nearly Ideal Multiple Solvent (NIMS)/Bertrand, Acree and Burchfield (BAB) and the Modified Wilson models for predicting solute solubility in ternary solvent (or even higher multicomponent) mixtures based upon the model constants calculated from solubility data in sub-binary solvents. Average percent deviation between predicted and observed values were less than 2%, documenting that these models provide a fairly accurate description of the thermodynamic properties of nonelectrolyte solutions. Moreover, the models can be used for solubility prediction in solvent mixtures in order to find the optimum solvent composition for solubilization or desolubilization of a solute. From a computational standpoint, the Combined Nearly Ideal Multiple Solvent/Redlich-Kister equation is preferred because the needed model constants can be calculated with a simple linear regressional analysis. Model constants for the Modified Wilson equation had to be calculated using a reiterative trial-and-error method. The C++ program for the Modified Wilson equation applied to ternary and heptanary solvent mixtures is attached.
Tensile properties, namely the elastic modulus, tensile strength, percent of elongation at yield and at the break were determined for the pure components and blends. The results are connected to the respective phase diagrams and demonstrate that blending makes property manipulation possible. Blends for which the mechanical properties are better than those of pure EPs can be obtained.
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