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United Nations Peacekeeping: Issues for Congress
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Trade Promotion (Fast-Track) Authority: H.R. 3005 Provisions and Related Issues
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Trying Terrorists as War Criminals
On November 13, 2001, President Bush signed a Military Order pertaining to the detention, treatment, and trial of certain non-citizens in the war against terrorism. The President’s Military Order makes it apparent that he plans to treat the attacks as acts of war rather than criminal acts, and to prosecute those responsible as war criminals, trying them by special military commission rather than in federal court. The purpose of this the report is to clarify the legal basis for treating the acts as war crimes and the ramifications of applying the law of war rather than criminal statutes to prosecute the perpetrators. The discussion focuses on the trial of alleged terrorists and conspirators by a military commission rather than the federal courts. A longer treatment of the issues in this report and an analysis of other relevant issues, including the Military Order, are contained in CRS Report RL 31191.
Trade Agreement Implementation: Expedited Procedures and Congressional Control in Existing Law
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China and the World Trade Organization
China has sought over the past several years to become a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the international agency that administers multilateral trade rules. In September 2001, China completed its multilateral negotiations with the WTO Working Party handling its accession application and reached a trade agreement with Mexico, the last of the original 37 WTO members that requested a bilateral trade agreement with China. China’s WTO membership (as well as that of Taiwan’s) was formally approved at the WTO Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001.
Nuclear Arms Control: The U.S.-Russian Agenda
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Trade Promotion Authority (Fast-Track Authority for Trade Agreements): Background and Developments in the 107th Congress
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U.N. System Funding: Congressional Issues
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Caribbean Basin Interim Trade Program: CBI/NAFTA Parity
The entry into force, on January 1, 1994, of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has eliminated the advantage that the beneficiaries of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (CBERA) and related provisions of the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) had enjoyed in trade with the United States relative to Mexico, and gave Mexico an increasingly significant competitive edge over the CBERA countries. The scheduled further implementation of the NAFTA would have resulted in a substantial advantage to Mexico over the CBERA countries and vitiate in part the purpose of the CBERA.
The Middle East Peace Talks
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Chemical Weapons Convention: Issues for Congress
The Convention provides the most extensive and intrusive verification regime of any arms control treaty, extending its coverage to not only governmental but also civilian facilities. The Convention also requires export controls and reporting requirements on chemicals that can be used as warfare agents and their precursors. The CWC establishes the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) to oversee the Convention's implementation. Chemical Weapons Convention implementing legislation, as S. 610, passed the Senate unanimously on May 23, 1997. This legislation, which was an amendment in the nature of a substitute reported from the Judiciary Committee, provides the statutory authority for domestic compliance with the Convention's provisions. It sets criminal and civil penalties for the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, transfer, possession, or use of chemical weapons.
Trade and the Americas
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Drug Certification Requirements and Proposed Congressional Modifications in 2001
This report provides a brief summary of the existing drug certification requirements for drug producing and drug-transit countries, background on the experience, criticisms, and reform efforts under these provisions; a summary of early congressional options and proposals advanced in 2001, with possible advantages and disadvantages; a summary of later initiatives with legislative activity; and (5) a tracking of legislative action on the major initiatives.
Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy
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Trying Terrorists as War Criminals
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Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Free Trade, and the 2001 Summit in Shanghai
On October 20-21, 2001, the Ninth APEC Leaders’ Meeting (summit) was hosted by China in Shanghai. The office theme for APEC 2001 was “Meeting New Challenges in the New Century: Achieving Common Prosperity through Participation and Cooperation” with the sub-themes of: (1) sharing the benefits of globalization and the new economy, (2) advancing trade and investment, and (3) promoting sustained economic growth. For the United States, APEC raises fundamental questions that are of special interest to Congress. One is whether consensus can be achieved on the APEC vision of free trade and investment in the Asia Pacific or whether future trade liberalization will be confined primarily to bilateral free-trade agreements or multilateral trade negotiations under the World Trade Organization.
Terrorism Funding: FY2002 Appropriations Bills
No Description Available.
Nuclear Arms Control: The U.S.-Russian Agenda
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Latin America: Terrorism Issues and Implications for U.S. Policy
Latin American nations strongly condemned the September 11, 2001 attacks on NewYork and Washington and took action through the Organization of American States and the Rio Treaty to strengthen hemispheric cooperation against terrorism and express solidarity with the United States. Many nations are taking actions to investigate possible regional linkages with the Osama bin Laden terrorist network, and to ensure that their financial sectors are not being used by terrorists. In the aftermath of the attacks, the U.S. policy toward the region will likely include a re-invigorated security agenda, with the development of new cooperative mechanisms against terrorism. The terrorist attacks will have implications in several areas, including the extent of hemispheric cooperation against terrorism, anti-money laundering efforts, Andean counter-narcotics strategy, the trade agenda, regional economic stability, and policy toward Mexico and Cuba.
India and Pakistan: Current U.S. Economic Sanctions
In 1998, India and Pakistan each conducted tests of nuclear explosive devices, drawing world condemnation. The United States and a number of India’s and Pakistan’s major trading partners imposed economic sanctions in response. Most U.S. economic sanctions were lifted or eased within a few months of their imposition, however, and Congress gave the President the authority to remove all remaining restrictions in 1999.
Agriculture and Fast Track or Trade Promotion Authority
This report considers the issue of new "fast track" or trade promotion authority (APA) legislation in the 107th Congress. Moreover, the report summarizes the agricultural debates on the issue.
Agriculture and Fast Track or Trade Promotion Authority
New “fast track” (or, trade promotion) authority (TPA) is at issue in the 107th Congress. Such authority could enable the Administration to submit negotiated foreign trade agreements to Congress for consideration under expedited procedures. Efforts to renew this authority, which expired in 1994, have not succeeded since then. Many agricultural and food industry interests are among the export-oriented enterprises that support TPA, arguing that foreign trading partners will not seriously negotiate with an Administration that lacks it. However, some farm groups argue that fast track ultimately will lead to new agreements that could have adverse effects on U.S. producers, at least in some commodity sectors.
NAFTA Labor Side Agreement: Lessons for the Workers Rights and Fast-Track Debate
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Nuclear Sanctions: Section 102(b) of the Arms Export Control Act and Its Application to India and Pakistan
No Description Available.
Taliban and the Drug Trade
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Terrorism Abroad: A Quick Look at Applicable Federal and State Laws
Terrorists' attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City and the American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania have stimulated demands that the terrorists responsible and those like them be brought to justice. American criminal law already proscribes many of these acts of terrorism and there have been proposals to expand that coverage.
Terrorism at Home: A Quick Look at Applicable Federal and State Criminal Laws
Terrorists' attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City and the American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania have stimulated demands that the terrorists responsible and those like them be brought to justice. American criminal law already proscribes many of these acts of terrorism and there have been proposals to expand that coverage. The conduct we most often associate with terrorism – bombings, assassinations, armed assaults, kidnapping, threats – are generally outlawed by both federal and state law. The federal approach builds upon individual national interests: the protection of federal officers, ensuring the safety of foreign diplomatic officials, guaranteeing the safety and integrity of the mails and the channels of interstate and foreign commerce, and honoring our international obligations.
Taiwan and the World Trade Organization
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"Terrorism" and Related Terms in Statute and Regulation: Selected Language
Congress is considering revised definitions of “terrorism” and related terms in the context of the proposed “Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001.” While the proposed definitions relate to criminal law and immigration law, hundreds of other federal statutes and regulations already define “terrorism” and related terms in a variety of other contexts. However, these statutes and regulations ultimately refer to an extremely small set of statutory definitions, current criminal law and immigration definitions being among them. This report provides the current text of these fundamental definitions. The report will be updated as action on new antiterrorism law proceeds.
Terrorism at Home and Abroad: Applicable Federal and State Criminal Laws
Terrorists’ attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, the Murrah building in Oklahoma City, and the American Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania have stimulated demands that the terrorists responsible and those like them be brought to justice. American criminal law already proscribes many of these acts of terrorism and there have been proposals to expand that coverage. This is a brief overview of the state and federal laws that now prohibit terrorism in this country and abroad.
North Korea's Nuclear Weapons Program
No Description Available.
Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy
No Description Available.
Response to Terrorism: Legal Aspects of the Use of Military Force
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Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy
No Description Available.
Terrorism: Near Eastern Groups and State Sponsors, 2001
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Vietnam Trade Agreement: Approval and Implementing Procedure
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Democratic Republic of the Congo: Peace Process and Background
The purpose of this report is to review the status of the Democratic Republic of the Congo peace process, provide background on recent conflicts in the Congo; briefly summarize the political history that led to these conflicts; and assess prospects for the future. U.S. Congo policy and congressional involvement are also described.
National Missile Defense: Russia's Reaction
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The Shib'a Farms Dispute and Its Implications
This report discusses the Shib’a Farms area, which remains a source of tension and potential risk. This is a roughly 10 square mile enclave at the southern edge of the Lebanese-Syrian border.
China and "Falun Gong"
The “Falun Gong” movement has led to the largest and most protracted public demonstrations in China since the democracy movement of 1989. On April 25, 1999, an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 adherents assembled in front of Zhongnanhai, the Chinese Communist Party leadership compound, and participated in a silent protest against state repression of their activities. On July 21, 1999, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) government, fearful of the spread of social unrest, outlawed the movement and began to arrest Falun Gong protesters.
Trafficking in Women and Children: The U.S. and International Response
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Export Tax Benefits and the WTO: Foreign Sales Corporations (FSCs) and the Extraterritorial (ETI) Replacement Provisions
The U.S. tax code’s Foreign Sales Corporation (FSC) provisions provided a tax benefit for U.S. exporters. However, the European Union (EU) in 1997 charged that the provision was an export subsidy and thus contravened the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements. A WTO ruling upheld the EU complaint, and to avoid WTO sanctioned retaliatory tariffs, U.S. legislation in November 2000 replaced FSC with the “extraterritorial income” (ETI) provisions, consisting of a redesigned export tax benefit of the same magnitude as FSC. The EU maintained that the new provisions are also not WTO-compliant and asked the WTO to rule on the matter.
The Iran-Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA)
Report discussing the Iran Libya Sanctions Act as well as the legislative developments that occurred regarding the act.
Moldova: Basic Facts
Moldova was incorporated into the Soviet Union June 1940, and regained its independence on August 27, 1991. Shortly thereafter, Moldova faced challenges from Turkic-speaking Gagauz and ethnic Russians, both residing in Moldova's Dniestr valley, who proclaimed separatist "republics." Other challenges facing Moldovans include pursuing economic reform and choosing between potential reunification with their ethnic cohorts in Romania and forging an independent identity.
Arms Control After START II: Next Steps on the U.S.-Russian Agenda
The United States and Russia signed the second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) on January 3, 1993. This report presents the background on the Russian parliament approval of the START II ratification. The report also discusses the linkage between U.S. withdrawal from ABM treaty and Russia’s possible withdrawal from START II. It discusses the alternative approaches for the United States and the future for the U.S.-Russian arms control process.
Cyberwarfare
Cyberwarfare raises issues of growing national interest and concern. Cyberwarfare can be used to describe various aspects of defending and attacking information and computer networks in cyberspace, as well as denying an adversary’s ability to do the same. Some major problems encountered with cyber attacks, in particular, are the difficulty in determining the origin and nature of the attack and in assessing the damage incurred.
Terrorism: Automated Lookout Systems and Border Security Options and Issues
No Description Available.
United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR): U.S. Membership
This short report provides an overview of the U.N. Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR and Administration and Congressional responses to recent developments.
The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues
The World Trade Organization (WTO), which was established on January 1, 1995, is the principal organization for rules governing international trade. This report provides general background on the WTO: its establishment, principles, administrative bodies, and membership. It also includes a brief discussion of policy issues pertaining to the WTO agenda, U.S. sovereignty and membership in the WTO, the congressional role in U.S. participation in the WTO, and pursuit of U.S. trade goals in the WTO compared to other options.
Fast-Track Authority for Trade Agreements (Trade Promotion Authority): Background and Developments in the 107th Congress
This report discusses one of the major trade issues in the 107th Congress: whether or not Congress approves authority for the President to negotiate trade agreements with expedited, or "fast track" procedures. Under this authority, Congress agrees to consider legislation to implement the nontariff trade agreements under a procedure with mandatory deadlines, no amendment, and limited debate. The President is required to consult with congressional committees during negotiation of nontariff trade agreements and notify Congress before entering into any such agreement. The President was granted fast-track authority almost continuously from 1974 to 1994, but the authority lapsed and has not been renewed.
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