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This is why exclusion of interpretations by frames is as significant
to outcomes as inclusion.
Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock (1991) state that a potential
"counterframing" of the subject is absent in most research inquiries.
They assert that counterframes can provide researchers with alternative
ways of thinking about their research engagement, and, perhaps more
important, they can provide alternative perspectives for viewing prob-
lem definition, interpretation, and solution in any given research in-
quiry (p. 52). Indeed, counterframing can assist researchers in their
"initial attempts to elucidate [the] topographical details" of their inves-
tigation (Hoyningen-Huene, 1993, p. 175).
Engineering Design Epistemology
Kerlinger (1977), author of "a highly respected text on research meth-
odology" (Rudestam and Newton, 1992, p. 6), asserts that "the basic
purpose of scientific research is theory and model development" (p. 8)
for confronting the problems of natural phenomena. He cites Nagel's
(1979) work as "the most detailed, cogent and comprehensive defense
for use of scientific theory and models in the field of research" (Ker-
linger, 1977, p. 9). Kerlinger encourages scholars in the social sciences
to adopt Nagel's ideas as a fundamental starting point for their re-
search. Nagel's notions about theories and models in science have im-
plications for model development in engineering design.
According to Nagel, scientific theory has a defined tripartite struc-
ture that comprises
an abstract calculus that is the logical skeleton of the ex-
planatory system, and that "implicitly defines" the basic
notions of the system; a set of rules that assigns an empiri-
cal content to the abstract calculus by relating it to the con-
crete materials of observation and experiment; and a model
for the abstract calculus, which supplies some flesh for the
skeletal structure in terms of familiar conceptual or visual-
izable materials. (1979, p. 83)
In sum, any given scientific theory embodies an abstract calculus
(explanatory theory); a set of operational definitions (for assigning em-
pirical content to the abstract calculus); and a model (for interpretation
of the abstract calculus). Nagel claims that his "abstract calculus" can
be used to "implicitly define" the basic notions of systems in the social17
Chapter 2
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O'Connor, Brian Clark; Copeland, Jud H., 1943- & Kearns, Jodi L. Hunting and Gathering on the Information Savanna, book, 2003; [Lanham, Maryland]. (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc83323/m1/27/: accessed April 23, 2024), University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu; crediting UNT College of Information.